RM Key vocab to learn! Flashcards
(258 cards)
1
Q
Aim
A
A statement of what the researcher(s) intend to find out in a research study.
2
Q
Bar Chart
A
A graph used to represent the frequency of data; the categories on the x-axis have no fixed order and there is no true zero.
3
Q
Behaviour categories
A
Dividing a target behaviour (such as stress or aggression) into a subset of specific and operationalised behaviours.
4
Q
Bias
A
A systematic distortion.
5
Q
Calculated value
A
The value of a test statistic calculated for a particular data set
6
Q
Case study
A
A research investigation that involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution or event.
7
Q
Closed questions.
A
Questions that have a predetermined range of answers from which respondents select one. Produces quantitative data.
8
Q
Confederate
A
An individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed how to behave by the investigator.
9
Q
Confidentiality
A
Concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another and the trust that the information will be protected.
10
Q
Confounding variable
A
A variable under study that is not the IV, but which varies systematically with the IV. Changes in the DV may be due to this, rather than the IV and therefore the outcome is meaningless.
11
Q
Content analysis
A
A kind of observational study in which behaviour is observed indirectly in written or verbal material such as interviews, conversations, books, diaries or TV programmes.
12
Q
Continuous variable
A
A variable that can take on any value with a certain range.
13
Q
Control group
A
The group in an experiment or study that does not receive treatment by the researchers and is then used as a benchmark to measure how the other tested subjects do.
14
Q
Controlled observation
A
A form of investigation in which behaviour is observed but under conditions where certain variables have been organised by the researcher.
15
Q
Correlation
A
Determining the extent of an association between two variables
16
Q
Zero correlation
A
Co-variables may not be linked at all
17
Q
Positive correlation
A
Both variables increase together
18
Q
Negative correlation
A
As one co-variable increases, the other decreases.
19
Q
Correlation coefficient
A
A number between -1 and +1 that tells us how closely the co-variables in a correlational analysis are associated.
20
Q
Cost-benefit analysis
A
A systematic approach to estimating the negatives and positives of any research, to see if benefits outweigh limitations.
21
Q
Counterbalancing
A
An experimental technique used to overcome order effects when using repeated measures design.
Ensures each condition is tested first or second in equal amounts.
22
Q
Co-variable
A
Variables in a correlation which vary (change) and are measured, and neither one is set or controlled by the researcher.
23
Q
Covert observation
A
Observing people without their knowledge.
Knowing that their behaviour is being observed, is likely to alter the behaviour of the participant- and so this prevents that.
24
Q
Critical value
A
In an inferntial test, this is the value of the test statistic that must be reached to show significance.
25
Curvilinear correlation
A non-linear relationship between two co-variables
26
Debriefing
A post-research interview designed to inform participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the state they were in at the start of the study. It may also be used to gain useful feedback about the procedures in the study.
## Footnote
*It is a way of dealing with ethical issues.*
27
Deception
A participant is not told the true aims of a study and thus cannot give truly informed consent.
28
Demand characteristics
A cue that makes participants unconsciously aware of the aims of a study or helps participants work out what the researcher expects to find.
29
Dependent variable (DV)
A measurable outcome of the action of the independent variable in an experiment.
## Footnote
*The variable the researcher measures.*
30
Directional hypothesis
States the direction of the predicted difference between two conditions or two groups of participant.
## Footnote
*It is one-tailed and predicts the nature of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.*
31
Ecological validity
A form of external validity, concerning the ability to generalise a research effect beyond the research setting and to settings in everyday life.
## Footnote
*The study must be representative (have mundane realism) and generalisability (to other settings).*
32
Effect size
A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables.
33
Ethical guidelines (code of conduct)
A set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly and with integrity.
34
Ethical issues
Concern questions of right and wrong.
## Footnote
*They arise in research where there are conflicting sets of values between researchers and participants concerning goals, procedures or outcomes of a research study.*
35
Ethics committee
A group of people within a research institution that must approve a study before it begins.
36
Event sampling
An observational technique in which a count is kept of the number of times a certain behaviour (event) occurs.
37
Experiment
A research method where causal conclusions can be drawn because an independent variable has been deliberately manipulated to observe the causal effect on the dependent variable.
38
Experimental design
A set of procedures used to control the influence of factors such as parcipant variables in an experiment.
39
Experimental method
Involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable.
40
External validity
The degree to which a research finding can be generalised to other settings, to other groups of people, and over time.
41
Historical validity
The ability of a study to generalise over time, to other time periods that are different to that the study was conducted in.
42
Extraneous variables
Do not vary systematically with the IV and so do not act as an alternative IV.
May still have an effect on the DV.
43
Field experiment
A controlled experiment conducted outside the laboratory.
IV is still manipulated.
Participants are usually unaware they are in an experiment, and so behaviour is often more natural.
44
Fraction
A method of expressing parts of a whole
45
Generalisation
Applying the findings of a particular study to the population.
46
Histogram
Type of frequency distribution in which the numbers of scores in each category of continuous data are represented by vertical columns.
There is a true zero and no spaces between the bars.
47
Hypothesis
A precise and testable statement about the assumed relationship between variables.
Operationalisation is a key part of making the statement testable.
48
Independent groups design
Participants are allocated to two (or more) groups representing different levels of the IV.
Allocation is usually done using random techniques.
49
Independent variable (IV)
Some event that is directly manipulated by an experimenter in order to test its effect on another variable.
50
Informed consent
Participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order for them to make an informed decision about whether to participate.
51
Internal validity
The degree to which an observed effect was due to the experimental manipulation rather than the other factors such as confounding/extraneous variables.
52
Inter-observer reliability
The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour.
53
Intervening variable
A variable that comes between two other variables, which is used to explain the association between those two variables.
## Footnote
*For example, if a positive correlation is found between ice cream sales and violence this may be explained by an intervening variable - heat- which causes the increase in ice cream sales AND the increase in violence.*
54
Interview
A research method or technique that involves a face-to-face, 'real-time' interaction with another individual and results in the collection of data.
55
Interview bias
The effect of an interviewer's expectations (communicated unconsciously) on a respondent's behaviour.
56
Investigator effects
Anything that an investigator does that has an effect on a participant's performance in a study other than what was intended.
57
Laboratory experiment
An experiment carried out in a controlled setting. Has a hihg internal validity because good control over all variables is possible.
58
Linear correlation
A systematic relationship between co-variables that is defiined by a straight line.
59
Matched pairs design
Pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables such as age and IQ. One member of each pair is allocated to one of the conditions under test and the second perosn is allocated to the other condition.
60
Mean
The arithmetic average of a data set.
Takes the exact values of all the data into account.
61
Measure of dispersion
A descriptive statistic that provides information about how spread out a set of data are.
62
Measures of central tendency
A descriptive statistic that provides information about a 'typical' value for a set of data.
63
Median
The middle value of a data set when the items are placed in rank order.
64
Meta-analysis
A researcher looks at the findings from a number of different studies and produces a statistic to represent the overall effect
65
Mode
The most frequently occuring value or item in a data set.
66
Mundane realism
Refers to how a study mirrors the real world.
*The research environment is realistic to the degree to which experiences encountered in the research environment will occur in the real wor*ld.
67
Natural experiment
A research method in which the experimenter has not manipulated the independent variable directly.
## Footnote
*The IV would vary whether or not the researcher was interested in it.*
68
Naturalistic observation
An observation carried out in an everyday setting, in which the investigator does not interfere in any way but merely observes the behaviour in question.
69
Negative correlation
Describes a correlation where, as one co-variable increases, the other decreases.
70
Negative skewed distribution
Most of the scores are bunched towards the right.
The mode is to the right of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the left.
71
Non-directional hypothesis
Predicts simply that there is a difference between two conditions or two groups of participants, without stating the direction of the difference.
It is two-tailed.
72
Non-participant observation
The observer is seperate from the people being observed.
73
Normal distribution
A symmetrical bell-shaped frequency distribution.
Occurs when certain values are measured
74
Observer bias
Observers' expectations affect what they see or hear.
This reduces the validity of the observations.
75
One-tailed test
Form of test used with a directional hypothesis
76
Open questions
Questions that invite respondents to provide their own answers rather than select one of those provided.
Tend to produce qualitative data.
77
Operationalise
Ensuring that variables are in a form that can be easily tested.
## Footnote
*A concept such as 'educational ability' needs to be specified more clearly in order to investigate it. Eg, might be operationalised as 'GCSE grade in maths'.*
78
Opportunity sample
A sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study.
79
Order effect
In a repeated measures design, an extraneous variable arising from the other order in which conditions are presented, eg. a practice effect or fatigue effect.
80
Order of magnitude
A means of expressing a number by focusing on the overall size (magnitude).
This is done by expressing the number in terms of powers of 10.
81
Overt observation
Observational studies where participants are aware that their behaviour is being studied.
82
Participant observation
Observations made by someone who is also participating in the actiity being observed, which may affect their objectivity.
83
Peer review
The practive of using independent experts to asses the quality and validity of scientific research and academic reports.
84
Percentage
A method of expressing parts of a whole.
85
Pilot study
A small-scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with a view to making improvements.
86
Population
The group of people that the researcher is interested in.
*or*
The group of people from whom a sample is drawn.
*or*
The group of people about whom generalisations can be made.
87
Population validity
A form of external validity, concerning the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalised to other groups of people, besides those who took part in the study.
88
Positive correlation
Refers to the instance of co-variables both increasing together, in a correlation.
89
Positive skewed distribution
Most of the scores are bunched towards the left.
## Footnote
*The mode is to the left of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the right.*
90
Presumptive consent
A method of dealing with lack of informed consent or deception, by asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part in the study.
## Footnote
*If this group of people consents to the procedures, then it is presumed that the real participants would have also agreed.*
91
Primary data
Information observed or collected directly from first-hand experience.
92
Privacy
A person's right to control the flow of information about themselves.
93
Probability (p)
A numerical measure of the likelihood or chance that certain events will occur.
94
Protection from harm
During a research study, participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects, such as physical injury, lowered self-esteem, or embarrassment.
95
Qualitative data
Information in words that cannot be counted or quantified.
## Footnote
*Can be turned into quantitative data by placing them in categories and counting frequency.*
96
Quantitative data
Information that is represented by numbers and can be measured in numbers or quantities.
97
Quasi-experiment
Studies that are 'almost' experiments.
The IV does not vary at all- it just exists- and it's effect on the DV is recorded.
98
Questionnaire
Data collected through the use of written questions.
99
Random allocation
Allocating participants to experimental groups or conditions using random techniques.
100
Random sample
A sample of participants produced by using a random technique, so that every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.
101
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest item in a data set.
## Footnote
*Usually 1 is added as a correction.*
102
Ratio
A method of expressing parts of a whole.
103
Repeated measures design
Each participant takes part in every condition under test, ie. each level of the IV.
104
Review
A consideration of a number of studies that have investigated the same topic in order to reach a general conclusion about a particular hypothesis.
105
Right to withdraw
Participants can stop participating in a study if they are uncomfortable in any way.
Especially important in case where it was not possible to get fully informed consent.
106
Sampling
The method used to select participants, such as random, opportunity and volunteer.
107
Scattergram
A graphical representation of the association between two sets of scores.
108
Secondary data
Information used in a research study that was collected by someone elese or for a purpose other than the current one.
## Footnote
*Eg. published data or data collected in the past.*
109
Sign test
A statistical test to determine the significance of a sample of related items of data.
110
Significance
A statistical term indicating that the research findings are sufficiently strong for us to accept the research hypothesis under test
111
Significant figure
Refers to the number of important single digits used to represent a number.
112
Skewed distribution
A distribution is skewed if one tail is longer than another, signifying that there are a number of extreme values to one side or another of the mid-score.
113
Social desirability bias
A distortion in the way people answer questions- they tend to answer in such a way that presents themselves in a better light.
114
Standard deviation
Shows the amount of variation in a data set.
It assesses the spread of data around the mean.
115
Standardised procedures
A set of procedures that are the same for all participants in order to be able to repeat the study.
116
Standardised instructions
Instructions that are given to all participants to tell them how to perform the task.
117
Stratified sample
A sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the population.
Participants are then selected randomly from the subgroups.
118
Structured interviews
Any interview in which the questions are decided in advance.
119
Structured observations
A researcher uses various systems to organise observations, such as behavioural categories and sampling procedures.
120
Systematic sample
A sample obtained by selecting every nth person.
This can be a random sample if the first person is selected using a random method; you then select every nth person after that.
121
Table of critical values
A table that contains the numbers used to judge significance.
## Footnote
*The calculated value of the test statistic is compared to the number in the table to see if the calculated value is significant.*
122
Test statistic
A statistical test is used to calculate a numerical value.
## Footnote
*For each test this value has a specific name such as S for the sign test.*
123
Time sampling
An observational technique in which the observer records behaviours in a given time frame, *eg. noting what a target individual is doing every 15 seconds.*
The observer may select one or more behavioural categories to tick at this time interval.
124
Two-tailed test
Form of test used with a non-directional hypothesis.
125
Unstructured interview
The interview starts out with some general aims and possibly some questions, and lets the interviewee's answers guide subsequent questions.
126
Validity
Refers to whether an observed effect is a genuine one.
127
Volunteer bias
A form of sampling bias because volunteer participants have special characteristics, such as usually being more highly motivated than randomly selected participants.
128
Volunteer sample
A sample of participants that relies solely on volunteers to make up the sample.
## Footnote
*Also called a self-selected sample.*
129
Zero correlation
A correlation where the co-variables are not linked.
130
A statement of what the researcher(s) intend to find out in a research study.
Aim
131
A graph used to represent the frequency of data; the categories on the x-axis have no fixed order and there is no true zero.
Bar Chart
132
Dividing a target behaviour (such as stress or aggression) into a subset of specific and operationalised behaviours.
Behaviour categories
133
A systematic distortion.
Bias
134
The value of a test statistic calculated for a particular data set
Calculated value
135
A research investigation that involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution or event.
Case study
136
Questions that have a predetermined range of answers from which respondents select one. Produces quantitative data.
Closed questions.
137
An individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed how to behave by the investigator.
Confederate
138
Concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another and the trust that the information will be protected.
Confidentiality
139
A variable under study that is not the IV, but which varies systematically with the IV. Changes in the DV may be due to this, rather than the IV and therefore the outcome is meaningless.
Confounding variable
140
A kind of observational study in which behaviour is observed indirectly in written or verbal material such as interviews, conversations, books, diaries or TV programmes.
Content analysis
141
A variable that can take on any value with a certain range.
Continuous variable
142
The group in an experiment or study that does not receive treatment by the researchers and is then used as a benchmark to measure how the other tested subjects do.
Control group
143
A form of investigation in which behaviour is observed but under conditions where certain variables have been organised by the researcher.
Controlled observation
144
Determining the extent of an association between two variables
Correlation
145
Co-variables may not be linked at all
Zero correlation
146
Both variables increase together
Positive correlation
147
As one co-variable increases, the other decreases.
Negative correlation
148
A number between -1 and +1 that tells us how closely the co-variables in a correlational analysis are associated.
Correlation coefficient
149
A systematic approach to estimating the negatives and positives of any research, to see if benefits outweigh limitations.
Cost-benefit analysis
150
An experimental technique used to overcome order effects when using repeated measures design.
Ensures each condition is tested first or second in equal amounts.
Counterbalancing
151
Variables in a correlation which vary (change) and are measured, and neither one is set or controlled by the researcher.
Co-variable
152
Observing people without their knowledge.
## Footnote
*Knowing that their behaviour is being observed, is likely to alter the behaviour of the participant- and so this prevents that.*
Covert observation
153
In an inferntial test, this is the value of the test statistic that must be reached to show significance.
Critical value
154
A non-linear relationship between two co-variables
Curvilinear correlation
155
A post-research interview designed to inform participants of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the state they were in at the start of the study. It may also be used to gain useful feedback about the procedures in the study.
## Footnote
*It is a way of dealing with ethical issues.*
Debriefing
156
A participant is not told the true aims of a study and thus cannot give truly informed consent.
Deception
157
A cue that makes participants unconsciously aware of the aims of a study or helps participants work out what the researcher expects to find.
Demand characteristics
158
A measurable outcome of the action of the independent variable in an experiment.
## Footnote
*The variable the researcher measures.*
Dependent variable (DV)
159
States the direction of the predicted difference between two conditions or two groups of participant.
## Footnote
*It is one-tailed and predicts the nature of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.*
Directional hypothesis
160
A form of external validity, concerning the ability to generalise a research effect beyond the research setting and to settings in everyday life.
## Footnote
*The study must be representative (have mundane realism) and generalisability (to other settings).*
Ecological validity
161
A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables.
Effect size
162
A set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly and with integrity.
Ethical guidelines (code of conduct)
163
Concern questions of right and wrong.
## Footnote
*They arise in research where there are conflicting sets of values between researchers and participants concerning goals, procedures or outcomes of a research study.*
Ethical issues
164
A group of people within a research institution that must approve a study before it begins.
Ethics committee
165
An observational technique in which a count is kept of the number of times a certain behaviour (event) occurs.
Event sampling
166
A research method where causal conclusions can be drawn because an independent variable has been deliberately manipulated to observe the causal effect on the dependent variable.
Experiment
167
A set of procedures used to control the influence of factors such as parcipant variables in an experiment.
Experimental design
168
Involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable.
Experimental method
169
The degree to which a research finding can be generalised to other settings, to other groups of people, and over time.
External validity
170
The ability of a study to generalise over time, to other time periods that are different to that the study was conducted in.
Historical validity
171
Do not vary systematically with the IV and so do not act as an alternative IV.
May still have an effect on the DV.
Extraneous variables
172
A controlled experiment conducted outside the laboratory.
IV is still manipulated.
Participants are usually unaware they are in an experiment, and so behaviour is often more natural.
Field experiment
173
A method of expressing parts of a whole
Fraction
174
Applying the findings of a particular study to the population.
Generalisation
175
Type of frequency distribution in which the numbers of scores in each category of continuous data are represented by vertical columns.
There is a true zero and no spaces between the bars.
Histogram
176
A precise and testable statement about the assumed relationship between variables.
Operationalisation is a key part of making the statement testable.
Hypothesis
177
Participants are allocated to two (or more) groups representing different levels of the IV.
Allocation is usually done using random techniques.
Independent groups design
178
Some event that is directly manipulated by an experimenter in order to test its effect on another variable.
Independent variable (IV)
179
Participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order for them to make an informed decision about whether to participate.
Informed consent
180
The degree to which an observed effect was due to the experimental manipulation rather than the other factors such as confounding/extraneous variables.
Internal validity
181
The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour.
Inter-observer reliability
182
A variable that comes between two other variables, which is used to explain the association between those two variables.
## Footnote
*For example, if a positive correlation is found between ice cream sales and violence this may be explained by an intervening variable - heat- which causes the increase in ice cream sales AND the increase in violence.*
Intervening variable
183
A research method or technique that involves a face-to-face, 'real-time' interaction with another individual and results in the collection of data.
Interview
184
The effect of an interviewer's expectations (communicated unconsciously) on a respondent's behaviour.
Interview bias
185
Anything that an investigator does that has an effect on a participant's performance in a study other than what was intended.
Investigator effects
186
An experiment carried out in a controlled setting. Has a hihg internal validity because good control over all variables is possible.
Laboratory experiment
187
A systematic relationship between co-variables that is defiined by a straight line.
Linear correlation
188
Pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables such as age and IQ. One member of each pair is allocated to one of the conditions under test and the second perosn is allocated to the other condition.
Matched pairs design
189
The arithmetic average of a data set.
Takes the exact values of all the data into account.
Mean
190
A descriptive statistic that provides information about how spread out a set of data are.
Measure of dispersion
191
A descriptive statistic that provides information about a 'typical' value for a set of data.
Measures of central tendency
192
The middle value of a data set when the items are placed in rank order.
Median
193
A researcher looks at the findings from a number of different studies and produces a statistic to represent the overall effect
Meta-analysis
194
The most frequently occuring value or item in a data set.
Mode
195
Refers to how a study mirrors the real world.
*The research environment is realistic to the degree to which experiences encountered in the research environment will occur in the real wor*ld.
Mundane realism
196
A research method in which the experimenter has not manipulated the independent variable directly.
## Footnote
*The IV would vary whether or not the researcher was interested in it.*
Natural experiment
197
An observation carried out in an everyday setting, in which the investigator does not interfere in any way but merely observes the behaviour in question.
Naturalistic observation
198
Describes a correlation where, as one co-variable increases, the other decreases.
Negative correlation
199
Most of the scores are bunched towards the right.
The mode is to the right of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the left.
Negative skewed distribution
200
Predicts simply that there is a difference between two conditions or two groups of participants, without stating the direction of the difference.
It is two-tailed.
Non-directional hypothesis
201
The observer is seperate from the people being observed.
Non-participant observation
202
A symmetrical bell-shaped frequency distribution.
Occurs when certain values are measured
Normal distribution
203
Observers' expectations affect what they see or hear.
This reduces the validity of the observations.
Observer bias
204
Form of test used with a directional hypothesis
One-tailed test
205
Questions that invite respondents to provide their own answers rather than select one of those provided.
Tend to produce qualitative data.
Open questions
206
Ensuring that variables are in a form that can be easily tested.
## Footnote
*A concept such as 'educational ability' needs to be specified more clearly in order to investigate it. Eg, might be operationalised as 'GCSE grade in maths'.*
Operationalise
207
A sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study.
Opportunity sample
208
In a repeated measures design, an extraneous variable arising from the other order in which conditions are presented, eg. a practice effect or fatigue effect.
Order effect
209
A means of expressing a number by focusing on the overall size (magnitude).
This is done by expressing the number in terms of powers of 10.
Order of magnitude
210
Observational studies where participants are aware that their behaviour is being studied.
Overt observation
211
Observations made by someone who is also participating in the actiity being observed, which may affect their objectivity.
Participant observation
212
The practive of using independent experts to asses the quality and validity of scientific research and academic reports.
Peer review
213
A method of expressing parts of a whole.
Percentage
214
A small-scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with a view to making improvements.
Pilot study
215
The group of people that the researcher is interested in.
*or*
The group of people from whom a sample is drawn.
*or*
The group of people about whom generalisations can be made.
Population
216
A form of external validity, concerning the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalised to other groups of people, besides those who took part in the study.
Population validity
217
Refers to the instance of co-variables both increasing together, in a correlation.
Positive correlation
218
Most of the scores are bunched towards the left.
## Footnote
*The mode is to the left of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the right.*
Positive skewed distribution
219
A method of dealing with lack of informed consent or deception, by asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part in the study.
## Footnote
*If this group of people consents to the procedures, then it is presumed that the real participants would have also agreed.*
Presumptive consent
220
Information observed or collected directly from first-hand experience.
Primary data
221
A person's right to control the flow of information about themselves.
Privacy
222
A numerical measure of the likelihood or chance that certain events will occur.
Probability (p)
223
During a research study, participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects, such as physical injury, lowered self-esteem, or embarrassment.
Protection from harm
224
Information in words that cannot be counted or quantified.
## Footnote
*Can be turned into quantitative data by placing them in categories and counting frequency.*
Qualitative data
225
Information that is represented by numbers and can be measured in numbers or quantities.
Quantitative data
226
Studies that are 'almost' experiments.
The IV does not vary at all- it just exists- and it's effect on the DV is recorded.
Quasi-experiment
227
Data collected through the use of written questions.
Questionnaire
228
Allocating participants to experimental groups or conditions using random techniques.
Random allocation
229
A sample of participants produced by using a random technique, so that every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.
Random sample
230
The difference between the highest and lowest item in a data set.
## Footnote
*Usually 1 is added as a correction.*
Range
231
A method of expressing parts of a whole.
Ratio
232
Each participant takes part in every condition under test, ie. each level of the IV.
Repeated measures design
233
A consideration of a number of studies that have investigated the same topic in order to reach a general conclusion about a particular hypothesis.
Review
234
Participants can stop participating in a study if they are uncomfortable in any way.
Especially important in case where it was not possible to get fully informed consent.
Right to withdraw
235
The method used to select participants, such as random, opportunity and volunteer.
Sampling
236
A graphical representation of the association between two sets of scores.
Scattergram
237
Information used in a research study that was collected by someone elese or for a purpose other than the current one.
## Footnote
*Eg. published data or data collected in the past.*
Secondary data
238
A statistical test to determine the significance of a sample of related items of data.
Sign test
239
A statistical term indicating that the research findings are sufficiently strong for us to accept the research hypothesis under test
Significance
240
Refers to the number of important single digits used to represent a number.
Significant figure
241
A distribution is skewed if one tail is longer than another, signifying that there are a number of extreme values to one side or another of the mid-score.
Skewed distribution
242
A distortion in the way people answer questions- they tend to answer in such a way that presents themselves in a better light.
Social desirability bias
243
Shows the amount of variation in a data set.
It assesses the spread of data around the mean.
Standard deviation
244
A set of procedures that are the same for all participants in order to be able to repeat the study.
Standardised procedures
245
Instructions that are given to all participants to tell them how to perform the task.
Standardised instructions
246
A sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the population.
Participants are then selected randomly from the subgroups.
Stratified sample
247
Any interview in which the questions are decided in advance.
Structured interviews
248
A researcher uses various systems to organise observations, such as behavioural categories and sampling procedures.
Structured observations
249
A sample obtained by selecting every nth person.
This can be a random sample if the first person is selected using a random method; you then select every nth person after that.
Systematic sample
250
A table that contains the numbers used to judge significance.
## Footnote
*The calculated value of the test statistic is compared to the number in the table to see if the calculated value is significant.*
Table of critical values
251
A statistical test is used to calculate a numerical value.
## Footnote
*For each test this value has a specific name such as S for the sign test.*
Test statistic
252
An observational technique in which the observer records behaviours in a given time frame, *eg. noting what a target individual is doing every 15 seconds.*
The observer may select one or more behavioural categories to tick at this time interval.
Time sampling
253
Form of test used with a non-directional hypothesis.
Two-tailed test
254
The interview starts out with some general aims and possibly some questions, and lets the interviewee's answers guide subsequent questions.
Unstructured interview
255
Refers to whether an observed effect is a genuine one.
Validity
256
A form of sampling bias because volunteer participants have special characteristics, such as usually being more highly motivated than randomly selected participants.
Volunteer bias
257
A sample of participants that relies solely on volunteers to make up the sample.
## Footnote
*Also called a self-selected sample.*
Volunteer sample
258
A correlation where the co-variables are not linked.
Zero correlation
