SP - Booklet 1 Flashcards
(154 cards)
1
Q
What is the definition of arousal?
A
The state of alertness/readiness of an individual to perform a task. Level of arousal varies from deep sleep to extreme excitement
2
Q
What are some somatic (physical) symptoms of arousal?
A
Increase in adrenaline, HR and BP, sweating. Butterflies, nausea, cold clammy hands and needing to urinate
3
Q
What are some cognitive (psychological) symptoms of arousal?
A
increase in concentration and focus. Narrowed attention, decreased reaction time and heightened awareness
4
Q
What situations may increase arousal levels?
A
Level of competition, rewards, crowd, trials
5
Q
When does increased arousal help performance?
A
Helps simple/gross skills, helps an autonomous performer, increases energy
6
Q
When does increased arousal hinder performance?
A
Complex/fine skills, cognitive performer
7
Q
What does Hull’s Drive Theory suggest?
A
Increased arousal causes increased drive which cause increased arousal for some performers (autonomous performer or simple task)
8
Q
What does Hull’s Theory look like on a graph?
A
Linear relationship between arousal and performance.
9
Q
What is the equation for Hull’s Theory?
A
P=f(DxH). Performance is a function of habit and drive
10
Q
Which response/what does Hull say will happen if arousal increases?
A
Dominant response will occur. If cognitive learner or complex task then decreased performance as more mistakes. If autonomous learner or simple task then increased performance as less mistakes.
11
Q
What are some positives about Hull’s Drive Theory?
A
- Simple to understand
- Many performers and coaches believe the dominant response will happen
- Accurate in relationship to simple and gross skills (as arousal increases so do the skills)
12
Q
What are some limitations of Hull’s Drive Theory?
A
- Doesn’t account for losing motivation
- Performers do choke not going to be linear
- Doesn’t account for individual differences such as personality and skill type
- Some simple/gross skills performed well at low arousal
13
Q
What does The Inverted U-Theory suggest?
A
If overaroused or underaroused, then performance will be poor. Maximum performance will occur at OLA
14
Q
What are some positives about The Inverted U-Theory?
A
- Simple and easy to apply
- Many refer to OLA
- Accurately related to performance
15
Q
What are some limitations about The Inverted U-Theory?
A
- Doesn’t account for arousal effects on different performances (if overaroused performance may drop drastically not gradually)
- Doesn’t account for recovery after performance begins to deteriorate
16
Q
What makes OLA change?
A
Type of skill e.g. gross, fine, complex, simple
Skill level of performer (Learning stages)
Personality of performer (Introvert, extrovert)
17
Q
What effect does the personality of the performer have on the situations that they would perform better in and why?
A
Introvert better in low arousal conditions as their RAS (reticular activating system) enhances oncoming stimuli.
Extrovert better in high arousal conditions as their RAS reduces incoming stimuli
18
Q
What does the catastrophe theory suggest?
A
Increased arousal causes peak performance at OLA. Performance does not always decrease gradually after OLA had been reached. Sometimes a dramatic decline occurs (catastrophe)
19
Q
What situation must the performer be in for a catastrophe to happen?
A
High cognitive and somatic anxiety.
20
Q
What recovery methods can be used to recover from a catastrophe?
A
Deep breaths, positive self talk
21
Q
What are some positives about The Catastrophe Theory?
A
- Accounts for and explains why athletes choke
- Accounts for both somatic and cognitive arousal types
- Accounts for performer recovering by using recovery methods
22
Q
What are some limitations about The Catastrophe Theory?
A
- Not all performance experience a catastrophe when over aroused
- Doesn’t account for personality type, level of performer and type of skill
23
Q
What is the Zone of Optimal Functioning Theory suggesting?
A
ZOF is the level of performance that is anxiety free and technically near-perfect. A sense of supreme confidence and calm
24
Q
What can being in the ZOF lead to?
A
Peak flow
25
What are some characteristics of peak flow?
Sense of well being, clear goals, effortless movement, total focus on the task, complete absorption in the activity
26
What factors effect peak flow?
Injury, fatigue, crowd hostility, uncontrollable events, worrying, lack of challenge, poor officials, poor performance
27
What are some positives about The Zone of Optimal Functioning Theory?
- Most accepted explanation of arousal on performance as accounts for individual and doesn't make generalisations
28
What effects ZOF?
Type of skill
Level of performance
Personality
29
What is anxiety?
A negative emotional state caused because a situation is threatening
30
What is somatic anxiety?
Physiological responses of performer. Symptoms often reduce once event has started
31
What is cognitive anxiety?
Psychological responses and worries of a performer who doubts their ability to complete a task. Usually experienced prior to an event.
32
What is trait anxiety?
A trait within an individual which measures their potential to react with apprehension. Someone who easily becomes anxious has high trait anxiety. Stable and genetically inherited
33
What is state anxiety?
Anxiety felt in a particular situation or time
34
What is competitive state anxiety?
Anxiety levels when in a specific competitive sporting situation
35
What is competitive trait anxiety?
Tendency to see competitive situations as threatening and to respond with feelings of anxiety in competitive situations
36
What is the link between state and trait anxiety?
An individual with high trait anxiety is more likely to experience high state anxiety when faced with a stressful situation
37
What graph can show the effects of somatic anxiety on performance?
Inverted-U relationship
38
What graph can show the effects of cognitive anxiety on performance?
Negative linear relationship
39
What happens to cognitive anxiety leading up to a competition?
Increases from a week before performance. If start well then cognitive anxiety decreases. If start poorly then cognitive anxiety increases
40
What happens to somatic anxiety leading up to a competition?
Low days before performance. Sharp increase just before start of performance. Sharp decrease once even has started
41
What is eustress?
Positive stress where increases focus, attention and skill level
42
What is distress?
Negative form of stress where causes anxiety and apprehension
43
What are stressors?
Factors or situations that can cause stress
44
What are examples of sport-specific stressors?
Competition
Frustration
Conflict
Personal (A-trait)
Physiological and climatic
45
What is the stress process?
Demands of situation --> Athletes perception (positive or negative) --> increased arousal --> outcome
Positive --> increased motivation and energy --> enhanced performance
Negative --> increased anxiety and negative thoughts --> impaired performance
46
What is General Adaption Syndrome (GAS)?
How performers respond to stress
47
What are the stages of General Adaption Syndrome (GAS)?
1. Alarm reaction stage - fight or flight
2. Resistance stage - Homeostasis regained if stress continues
3. Exhaustion/collapse stage - Adrenal cortex fails after continued stress
48
What techniques can be used for stress/anxiety management?
Cognitive management = replace negative thoughts. Mind to muscle - mental relaxation (e.g. imagery, meditation, association)
Somatic management = Persuade body that stressor does not exist. Muscle to mind - physical relaxation (e.g. rhythmic breathing, PMR) - importance of biofeedback
49
What are the three ways of controlling cognitive anxiety?
1. Imagery/visualisation/mental rehearsal
2. Positive self-talk
3. Goal setting (SMART)
50
What are the three ways of controlling somatic anxiety?
1. Progressive Muscular Relaxation (PMR)
2. Centring/breathing control
3. Biofeedback
51
What is the definition of personality?
Someone's unique pattern of traits.
Stable, enduring and unique to the individual
52
What is the nature/trait approach to personality?
Born that way. Personality traits are stable, unchanging and enduring. Behaviour becomes predictable
53
Who/what are the nature/trait theories by?
Eysenck
Cattell
Type A+B
Sheldon
54
What is Eysenck's trait theory?
Extroversion/introversion dimension initiated from a persons Reticular Activating System (RAS).
Stable/neurotic dimension initiated from Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
55
What does Eysenck suggest the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) does?
Initiate stable/neurotic dimension.
Stable - ANS responds slowly to stressful situations e.g. even-tempered. easy going
Neurotic - ANS responds rapidly and strongly to stressful situations e.g. restless, anxious, excitable
56
What does Eysenck suggest the Reticular Activating System (RAS) does?
Initiate introversion/extroversion dimension. Help maintain OLA. Inhibit and excite brain activity
Extrovert - RAS inhibits incoming information leading to under-arousal. More stimulation required for OLA
Introvert - RAS amplifies incoming information, leading to over-arousal. Extra stimulation not needed for OLA
57
What is Cattell's trait theory?
Used a self-report questionnaire
Cattell's 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) assesses overall personality
Better than Eysenck as suggests personality can change with the situation
58
What are Type A and Type B personalities?
Type A - Concerned with status and achievement. Highly competitive, desire to succeed, need to be in control, prone to stress
Type B - Higher levels of life satisfaction. Non-competitive, lacks a desire to succeed, does not enjoy control, less prone to stress, patient, even-tempered
59
What is Sheldon's theory?
Personality was demonstrated based and physical attributes and the relationship between build and behaviour
Endomorph
Ectomorph
Mesomorph
60
What does Sheldon suggest the personality is for endomorphs?
Physically quite round
Pear shaped
Quite a lot of fat spread across the body
Psychologically they are sociable, fun-loving, tolerant, even tempered and relaxed
61
What does Sheldon suggest the personality is for ectomorphs?
Physically narrow shoulders and hips, very little body fat.
Psychologically they are self-conscious, introverted, inhibited, socially anxious, intense and thoughtful
62
What does Sheldon suggest the personality is for mesomorphs?
Physically desirable body, wide shoulders narrow hips, muscular body
Psychologically they are courageous, assertive, competitive, a risk taker and adventurous
63
What is the evaluation of the trait approach?
Doesn't take into account how our environment and social interactions influence behaviour.
Personality traits have very little bearing on whether a performer will be good at a sport
However introverts often better suited to situations with a calmer, less stressful approach and extroverts often prefer high arousal sports.
64
What is the social learning theory (SLT)?
Suggests behaviour is the function of environment. Caused by observation. Not stable and evolves by socialisation
65
What is Bandura's SLT?
Demonstration
Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Motivation
Matching
66
What is the evaluation of the SLT approach?
Valid research is yet to be proven though links have been made with sport and psychological well being
Underestimate biological factors on environment
Take away responsibility for actions
Some behaviours develop in absence of models
67
What does the interactionist approach suggest?
Behaviour is a function of personality and the environment. Combines trait approach with the social approach
68
Which two psychologists came up with approaches/models that fit with the interactionist idea?
Lewin
Hollander
69
What does Lewin suggest about behaviour?
Behaviour is adapted to suit the situation.
When situation is strong e.g. important match then environment dictates behaviour
When situation is weak e.g. friendly match then personality traits dictate behaviour
70
What is Hollanders model about behaviour?
Three layers.
Inner layer - psychological core - person's attitudes and values
2nd layer - typical responses - usual way someone behaves
Outer layer - role related behaviours - depend on situation
71
What does Hollander's model show?
Suggests the more that environment has an influence, the more behaviour is likely to change
Core is stable
2nd layer is normal response given
Outer layer may cause a varied response
72
How could using the interactionist approach improve performance?
Coach can predict any unacceptable behaviour and remove the player
Coach can see what situations have effects on players and help them to adjust
Coach can encourage adaptions in specific circumstances
73
What is the evaluation of the interactionist approach?
Personality is stable however the situation is unstable
Reinforcement could lead to behaviour being repeated
Core values hard to change and could affect performance
Particular situations elicit different responses from different players - difficult to predict
74
How may personality be measured?
Self-report questionnaires/psychometric tests (Eysenck and Cattel)
Observation
Interview
75
What are the advantages of using self-report questionnaires/psychometric tests to measure personality?
Cheap
Reliable
Quick and efficient
Recorded quantitively
76
What are the advantages of using an observation in order to measure personality?
Personality tested in the actual setting
77
What are the advantages of using an interview in order to measure personality?
Gain an in-depth understanding of the person
78
What are the disadvantages of using self report questionnaires in order to measure personality?
Low validity
Tendency to lie/respond with demand characteristics
Difficult to self assess
Ambiguous questions may lead to misinterpretation
Cannot follow up on any questions
79
What are the disadvantages of using an observation in order to measure personality?
Reduces validity and reliability
Pps may know they are being watched so change their behaviour
Behaviours observed may mean different things to different observers
80
What are the disadvantages of using an interview in order to measure personality?
Reduces validity and reliability
Takes time
Responses are mood dependant
Person interview the pp may make them nervous resulting in different responses to questions
81
What theory did Morgan propose?
The Profile of Mood States (POMS)
82
What is the Profile of Mood states (POMS)?
Iceberg profile that suggests success in sport may enhance positive mental health as well as positive mental health leading to success
83
What did Morgan find out when testing the mental health of successful athletes?
Greater positive mental health and fewer negative mental health characteristics
Above the norm for vigour but below the line for tension, anger, depression, fatigue and confusion
84
What characteristics are recorded on Morgan's POMS?
Tension
Depression
Anger
Vigour
Fatigue
Confusion
85
What is the credulous approach?
When the link between personality and behaviour is accepted
86
What is the sceptical approach?
When the link between personality and behaviour is doubted
87
What is achievement motivation?
An individual's drive to achieve success for it's own sake
88
What is the equation for achievement motivation?
AV = desire to succeed - fear of failure
89
Which two factors affect achievement motivation?
Personality of performer
Situational factors
90
What are the two personality factors that Atkinson suggested affected our achievement motivation?
Need to Achieve (NACH)
Need to Avoid Failure (NAF)
91
What are the characteristics of someone with a NACH personality?
Looks for challenges
Persists longer
Values feedback from others
Takes reasonable risks
Willing to take risks
High levels of SE
Takes responsibility for actions
Enjoys performing in evaluative situations
92
What are the characteristics of a NAF performer?
Avoids challenges
Gives up easily
Dislikes feedback from others
Dislikes 50-50 situations and evaluative situations
Preoccupied with failure
Takes time to complete tasks
Avoids personal responsibility
Low levels of SE
Unwilling to take risks
93
What are the two situational factors that Atkinson suggested affected our achievement motivation?
Task difficulty (probability of success)
Incentive value of success
94
What is the link between task difficulty and incentive value of success?
High probability of success = low incentive value of success
Low probability of success = high incentive value of success
95
What is avoidance behaviour?
Avoid evaluative situations in order to protect self esteem
96
What is approach behaviour?
Attempt challenging situations even if they might fail
97
Would a person who displays approach behaviour have high NACH or high NAF?
NACH
98
Would a person who displays avoidance behaviour have high NACH or high NAF?
NAF
99
How would a coach increase NACH behaviour?
Positive reinforcement - increased pride and satisfaction
Choice of difficulty
Everyone can succeed
Negative feedback on effort not ability
Gradually increase task difficulty
100
What are the three dimensions of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire?
Competitiveness
Win orientation
Goal orientation
101
What did research show the results were from the Sport Orientation Questionnaire?
Males score higher on competitiveness and win orientation
Women score higher on goal orientation
Athletes scored higher than non-athletes
Athletes more concerned about performance and less about outcome than non-athletes
102
What are the three stages that achievement motivation develops in?
Autonomous competence stage
Social comparison stage
Integrated stage
103
What happens in the autonomous competence stage of achievement motivation?
Up to 5 years old
Concerned with mastering skills
Rarely compare with others
Set their own goals
Internal standards
Concern is to do better than last time
104
What happens in the social comparison stage of achievement motivation?
From about 6
Begins to compare with others
External standards
Will only progress onto next stage if enjoy competition and use the feedback gained
105
What happens in the integrated stage of achievement motivation?
No fixed age as depends on maturation
Reached when both internal and external standards are used to evaluate performance
106
What is motivation?
The will/desire to learn/achieve to fulfil our physiological and psychological needs
107
What is intrinsic motivation?
Motivation from within the performer - the inner drive e.g. feelings of pride and satisfaction
108
What is extrinsic motivation?
Motivation that comes from an outside source e.g. coaches, supporters, prizes
109
What are tangible rewards?
Rewards that are physical and can be touched e.g. medals, trophies, badges, money
110
What are intangible rewards?
Non-physical rewards e.g. praise/encouragement from coach, applause from crowd, pat on the back, approval, social status
111
What are the disadvantages of too much extrinsic motivation?
May lead to loss of intrinsic motivation (love of the game)
Become dependent on it
Eventually becomes worthless
Failure to achieve the reward may lead to loss of motivation
Too much pressure - cheating
112
What strategies and tactics can be used to maintain intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
Offering rewards and incentives early on e.g. player of the week
Make the activity fun and enjoyable
Point out health benefits
Break the skill into parts (mini successes)
Point out role models
Internalise success
Set achievable yet challenging goals and targets
Use positive feedback
Use negative feedback to correct errors
113
How can setting goals affect performance?
Direct attention
Regulate amount of effort put into task
Ensure effort is sustained until goal is reached
Motivation - different strategies
Specific evaluation and feedback
Develop self-confidence and self-efficacy
114
What are the different types of goals?
Outcome goals
Performance goals
Process-oriented goals
Long term goals (year)
Medium/intermediate goals (3 months)
Short term goals (1 month)
115
What should goals be?
SMART
116
What does SMART stand for?
Specific
Measurable
Agreed
Realistic
Time-phased
117
How can the coach help commitment to completing goals?
Negotiate goals with performer
Give rewards for progress
Be supportive
Provide regular feedback
Explain the reasons for goal setting
118
What are process-oriented goals?
How to become successful e.g. a team to master a short corner routine in order to win the league
119
What is the definition of aggression?
The intention to harm outside the laws of the games/sport
Aggression is not an emotion or thought, it's a behaviour
Aggression is intentional not accidental
Involves harm or injury
Against living things
120
What are the different types of aggression?
Hostile aggression
Instrumental aggression
Assertive behaviour
121
What is hostile aggression?
Primary intention to harm another person, inflicted with anger which is outside the rules of the game
122
What is instrumental aggression?
Likely to cause harm but the intention is to achieve a different aim
No anger, outside the rules of the game
123
What is assertive behaviour?
Does not involve intention to harm, use of legitimate force within the rules
124
What do instinct theories suggest about aggression?
Aggressiveness is innate, necessary in the development of the species - competitive sport acts as catharsis
125
What are the arguments against the instinct theory of aggression?
Human aggression often not spontaneous
Aggression differs between cultures
No biological, innate characteristics have been identified
126
What does the SLT suggest about aggression?
Aggression is learned by observing others - DARMMM
Suggests non-aggressive behaviours can also be learned
127
What does the frustration-aggression theory suggest about aggression?
Frustration leads to aggression
Aggression stems from frustration
Frustration comes from the blocking of a goal-orientated behaviour which causes the drive to be aggressive towards the source of the frustration
Leads to catharsis
128
What are the problems with the frustration-aggression theory?
Frustration does not always lead to aggression
Aggression often occurs with no evidence of frustration
Doesn't account for situational factors
129
What does the cue arousal theory suggest about aggression?
Combination of SLT and frustration-aggression theory
Frustration leads to anger - not a drive which must be satisfied, but an emotion
People are only aggressive if this is the learned response through SLT or if certain cues are present
130
How can the four theories of aggression be remembered?
ASIF
131
What does ASIF stand for?
Aggressive cue theory
SLT
Instinct theory
Frustration aggression theory
132
What could be some causes of aggression?
Type of sport
Provoked
Hostile crowd
Desire to win
Facing defeat
Biased/unfair officiating
Desire to win
Frustration (goal blocked)
133
How could aggression be controlled?
Encourage sportsmanship
Display non-aggressive role models
Reduce emphasis on winning
Punish aggressive acts
Reward non-aggressive acts
Teach stress management techniques
Walk away from the situation
Point out responsibilities to the team
134
What specific strategies can a referee use to reduce aggression?
Apply rules correctly, consistently and remain unbiased
Punish aggressive behaviours
Be consistent with punishments
Give appropriate punishments
Use authority and control
135
What specific strategies can a coach use to reduce aggression?
Relaxation techniques
Reinforce good behaviour
Punish aggressive acts
Rome from situation
Encourage non-aggressive role models
Promote fair player
Reduce emphasis on winning
Give responsibility
136
What is social facilitation?
The influence of the presence of others on performance
137
What is social inhibition?
The negative effect of the presence of others on performance
138
What did Zajonc suggest were the four types of audience found in sport?
Passive others: Audience, co-actors
Interactive: Competitive co-actors, supporters
139
Who are the audience according to Zajonc?
Passive spectators who observe and make no comments but cause pressure
140
Who are co-actors according to Zajonc?
People doing the same thing at the same time without competition
141
Who are the competitive co-actors according to Zajonc?
People in direct competition
142
Who are the supports according to Zajonc?
People who have an influence
143
What would the effects of being watched be on a cognitive learner?
Increased arousal and increased anxiety - social inhibition
144
What would the effects of being watched be on an autonomous learner?
Increased motivation and encouragement - social facilitation
145
What would the effects of being watched be on a complex skill?
Social inhibition as requires more information processing and focus
146
What would the effects of being watched be on a simple skill?
Social facilitation as the presence of others helps
147
What would the effects of being watched be on an extrovert?
Social facilitation as the presence of other helps
148
What would the effects of being watched be on an introvert?
Social inhibition due to increased arousal and increased anxiety
149
What is the evaluation apprehension theory?
Not the mere presence of others, it's that the athlete perceives they are being evaluated
High levels of self efficacy - perform well while being evaluated
Low levels of self efficacy - perform poorly while being evaluated
150
What is Barons distraction conflict theory?
Athlete has to attend to the distractor and the demands of the task which creates a conflict leading to increased arousal and social facilitation effects
In order to prevent over-arousal performer must focus only on task
151
What is the self-presentation theory?
Motivations to behave are based on pleasing audiences by presenting yourself to the audiences expectations and self construction - matching self-presentation to own ideal self
152
How would having a home field advantage benefit performance?
Crowd attentive and supportive
Bigger crowd
Crowd close to playing area
Hostile to visiting team
Away travelled for a long time
Crowd influence officials
153
How would having a home field advantage hinder performance?
Home crowd are large, expectant and evaluate - increases anxiety
Increased pressure on home team
154
What are the strategies for combatting social inhibition and increasing social facilitation?
Use relaxation techniques
Improve focus and concentration
Train in front of gradually increasing numbers of people - familiarization
Focus on game and not the audience
Encourage support of teammates
Use selective attention effectively
Increase self esteem and confidence
Attribute correctly
