START OF INDIA'S CROWN RULE 1857- Flashcards
colonial policy, administration etc (54 cards)
1
Q
describe key british government cultivation + development projects
A
- the government cultivated over 10 million acres of land, of which 1/8th of the population depended on in 1878
1859 = 432 miles of track
1869 = 5000 miles of track
- british invest 150 million pounds into public work production
- british invest in irrigation canals on 8 million acres of land
motivation:
- easy communication and transportation to suppress rebellion
- investment in india + guaranteed constant agricultural growth
2
Q
growth of cotton and jute post mutiny + increase in price
A
- in 1681, the cotton industry grew to 8 mills in bombay, but by 1900, they were producing 500 million pounds of cotton
*cotton was in heavy demand within britain, so the government removes import taxes - by 1880s, the jute industry in bengal was growing
it had 20,000 workers
3
Q
when was the Imperial Police Force created in India, and when was the imperial service corps founded
A
1861
- created by lord canning
imperial service corps:
- under dufferin from 1884-1888
- was to train upper class indians (mirrors the civil service)
4
Q
describe the proclamations of victoria and canning in 1858
A
- was an attempt to promote unity and address all indian people’s in order to unify them under the british
- announced the transfer of power and was consolidated by the 1858 government of india act
- displayed a degree of british accountability to the indian mutiny
5
Q
describe british investment in railways in this period
A
- railways were invested in to promote quicker movement
- railway staff included christian indians and those more loyal to the raj
- this formed ‘railway colonies’
6
Q
legacy of racial distrust post-mutiny
A
- there were gated communities built for british officials and families (so british would migrate and feel safe)
- seperatism
- there was an entrenched climate of radicla distrust
7
Q
1878 vernecular press act
A
- introduced by lytton, but is later repealed by ripon in 1882
- it aimed to limit press freedoms and prevent criticism (ie of second AA war)
8
Q
describe the indian civil service
A
- was an institution used to ease administration
- consisted of around 1000 British people, with relatively little indian people actually on the service
- it became a symbol of status and wealth, given it had connotations of being elitist
- there were high standards of exams taken in order to get into the service
- indian members of the civil service only increased from 30-60 by 1914
9
Q
victoria becomes empress of india
A
1877
- there is delhi durbar in 1877 to celebrate
10
Q
political organisations formed in the raj, before the mid 1880s
A
- british india association
- formed in 1851
- it was quite pro-british, and would only submit petitions to the government, so the british often trusted them - indian national association
- it was initially supportive of government, until 1880
- led by bose
- it was very elitist, but soon merged with the INC and became more focused on indian rule
11
Q
government response to healthcare programmes in india
A
- cholera programmes of 1870s
- government refuse to intervene despite there being 170,000 cases
- adopt a laissez faire approach
12
Q
how was TREATMENT a cause of the indian mutiny
A
- treatment of peasantry
- bengali weavers were consistently put in concentration camps - treatment of sepoys
- there were 4x more sepoys than British in india - british deemed them as a threat
- in 1852, dalhousie ordered sepoys to burma - extensive local displacement, sepoys refuse
-1856 general service act by Canning (forced sepoys to serve overseas which would damage their caste system)
13
Q
dufferin report
A
- was used by nationalists to elicit how british rule had not been beneficial, as it highlighted immense poverty and food insecurity in bengal
14
Q
what were the bengali weaver concentration camps
A
- camps for bengali weavers from the 1700s to 1800s, continued under the EIC
- weavers were forced to produce a specific amount a day to even obtain a wage
- the british would cut off the thumbs of weavers and cut their loom
15
Q
list all the viceroys from 1858-1900
A
1858-1862 = lord canning
1862-1863 = earl of elgin
1864-1869 = lawrence
1869-1872 = earl of mayo
1872-1876 = lord of northbrook
1876-1880 = earl of lytton
1880-1884 = earl of dufferin
1884-1894 = marquess of lansdowne
1894-1899 = earl of elgin (different one)
1899-1905 = lord curzon
16
Q
british attitudes to the indian peoples they ruled in 1857
A
- notion of racial inferiority toward indians and being comfordable with violating their culture
- strict attitudes - felt threatened by local elite rule, and felt the need to have the british government infiltrated on a local scale to counteract this
- treated their rule in india as an opportunity for enlightenment, which violated cultural boundaries
- the british were very transactional and self interested, becoming less interested in co-operating with locals, but more interested in furthering individual gain
- treated indian culture as ethnocentric, causing hostility stemming from religious divides (lack of respect)
*resultantly, indians were extremely bitter to the british presence and frustrated at their casualty in undermining hinduism - there was less religious and economic freedom, displaying how british rule (with no mandate) had infiltrated into daily life)
17
Q
famine projects in india 1857-1890
A
- 1877 richard temple famine relief programmes to fix 1876-1878 famine
- people forced to live off 1 pound of grain a day
- 3.5 million people die
- temple reduced wages for a day of work in madras and bombay
- 58 million people suffer from chronic food shortages
- 90,000 people in camps in awadh - 1866 orissa famine
- 1 million indians die
- lawrence was in charge of mitigating these impacts, but offered to resign later - ripon establishes famine codes from 1880-1884 to measure food security
18
Q
describe changes to the defence system in india after 1858
A
- the army was strengthened to prevent future uprising and challenge to british administration
- more indian officers than british officers were added (70,000 british, and 125,000 native indians by the late 1880s)
- native indians were trained
- locals were cut off from one another to prevent unity
- natives were mixed by caste and religion to prevent unity and mutual dislike for the british
- there was a higher proportion of sikhs in the army (bc they were loyal during the mutiny)
- 62/74 bengali regiments for disbanded because they were not loyal to the british in the mutiny
- 2-3:1 ratio of british to sepoys
- the number of british officials increased, with indians all placed under their control
19
Q
describe the expansion of education in india from 1858 with examples
A
- 1857 = charles wood founded key universities in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta
- prestigious schools were established - ie Mayo College in Rajasthan (example of westernisation)
- from 1857-1887 = 60,000 indians entered these universities
- 2000 entered government service by 1882 (more diversity in job fields)
- mary carpenter was critical in opening up colleges in Bombay and Ahmedabad
20
Q
how were ADMINISTRATIVE CAUSES the cause of the indian mutiny
A
- dalhousie’s doctrine of lapse - if there was no male heir to land, it was ceded to the British - gradually expanding British control
- ie Maratha of Satara
- 1854 - annexation of awadh 1856 - traditional elites who lived in this area lost territory, and there is dissatisfaction over the British imposing their rule here
- local elites were stripped of their power - british violate traditional rule and generational control of elites
- 1773 regulating act - consolidate British power and expanded british power, whilst reducing local indian power
21
Q
describe the indian civil service
A
- the civil service was effectively used to administer the raj and assist the viceroy in maintaining power
- it lacked radical diversity, typically consisting of white men in positions of power
- there were around 1000 civil service staff in this period
- it had elitist connotations, due to the associations of high wealth and status with its positions
- there were competitive civil service exams used to be in these positions, in order to obtain the most expertise
- the number of indians in the civil service only increased from 30-60 from 1890-1914
- billingual indians were recruited in 13 provinces to be a ‘bridge’ between local indians and the british elite
22
Q
post-mutiny religious laissez faire
A
- british did not want religious divides to provoke another mutiny
- it called for the freedom to express religion and be protected under law
- christianity was not to be imposed on individuals
- the british in india was now focused on manners and civilisation, not religion
23
Q
describe the princely states from 1858, and why were they created
A
- these were local states ruled by maharajahs
- was about 40% of india at this time
- by 1900, 72 million people were governed under a princely state
- there were 565 princely states
- princely states were created BECAUSE the doctrine of lapse was removed under the 1858 act
- princely states were typically very loyal to the crown and respected british sovereignty - had an alliance
- there was a ‘resident’ or ‘agent’ was installed to oversee affairs to represent the viceroy
- the british did not want these ‘taluqdars’ to oppose british rule, so the british instead tried to embrace them
examples: kashmir, rajputana
24
Q
describe the administration of india after the mutiny, under crown rule
A
- there was a viceroy (initially canning)
- there was a legislative council, of which had expertise in areas of finance, law, the army, the economy and home affairs
- 6/12 members were indian (but elite and extremely loyal) - there were then provincial governors who had a more local presence and would have their own leg councils for provincial problems
25
describe western attitudes to india after the mutiny
- this idea of 'noble savage' and the need for the british to remain in india in order to enforce a civilising mission
- there was support for 'westernising' india
- the british were ignorant and ignored their brutality toward indians
- the british were dissmissive and determined to change indian culture
- reform in india was centered around the elite, failing to help the poorest in society
- felt british rule was 'liberating' for indians
26
when and where dos the indian mutiny end
gwalior
- 20th june 1858
27
describe victoria's declaration of november 1858
- india would be governed by a british monarch
- attempt at reconciliation - she pardoned the offences of those during the mutiny - attempt to reconstruct relations and eradicate mutual hostility
- claims at this need for impartiality and openness toward indians
28
give 3 key examples of British attempts to reconciliate with indians
1. 1859-1861 - canning makes a tour of india to win back local support
2. star of india medals introduced 1861 by Victoria (examples include the Knight Grand Commander)
- recipients include Scindia (maharajah in gwalior) and Duleep Singh
29
bullet point the causes of the indian mutiny
1. taxation / economic causes
2. cultural causes / interferance
3. administrative causes
4. treatment of local individuals
30
describe changes to law in india
- english law was treated as 'superior', as EIC courts were merged with crown courts
- the legal systems failed to represent and provide adequate protections for the vulnerable and instead favoured the elite, white man
31
describe and give examples of the british actively being scared of future rebellion, and taking measures to prevent this
1. separating indians based on caste and religion in defensive duty, as to prevent their unity
2. deployed indian troops abroad
- 1859 = 10,000 indians to Shanghai in 2nd Opium War
- 1882 = 7000 sent to Egypt to suppress Pasha's revolt (shipped from Portsmouth)
32
bullet point the reasons for the failure of the indian mutiny for the british
1. lack of effective strategy
- soliders are not well trained
- lack of ample machinery and artillery counter mutineers
- indians are strapped to cannons and told to lick blood (idea that this was exposed to the media)
2. indian troops
- under khan, it was advocated for muslims and hindu's to unite, which forced the british to fight a front which was solidified
- indian troops betray many of the traditional methods of fighting
- strong religious leadership
3. difficult conditions
- geographically limited - difficult supply lines
- famine breaks out
- solar eclipse - encourages people to stay indoors
- famine during the mutiny, killing over 100,000 people
4. indian population
- much of the indian population supported the massacre and bribe local people to join - enforces this idea that the cause of the mutiny was living standards and conditions
33
economic changes in India post mutiny
- increasing investment in railways to stimulate inaccessible trade and flexible movement for goods
- this allowed for development in run down areas and increasing growth
- agricultural industries thrived, especially in farming - stimulating local employment
- railway development developed to 2 miles a day
34
give some key examples of exploitation by the EIC of local indian workers
1. bengali weavers
- rounded up in concentration camps to produce a threshold amount of product
- poor treatment of weavers (displays profit driven british)
2. opium produce
- rely on opium production to fuel trade of tea with china
35
give the 5 main leaders of the indian mutiny and their role
1. nana sahib
- led the cawnpore massacre after being denied inheritance rights in peshwa region and the doctrine of lapse
- led to the bibighar and satichaura massacre which killed 300
2. rani of jhansi
- her son was refused inheritance rights under the doctrine of lapse
3. bahdur shah II
- was a muslim leader who was chosen by the EIC because he was a compliant prisoner
- led mutineers in meerut
4. mangal pandey
- led the pandey rebellion in 1857 over cartridges
- shot himself later - he became a symbol of protecting the hindu faith
5. bahadur khan
- emphasised the need for hindu, muslim unity against british
- displayed the emphasis and priority of religious protection
*describes relations with indigenous peoples
36
describe british administration in white settler colonies and give examples of this
- policy of 'responsible government' - much more laid back
- the british ruled only with the support of representative legislative assemblies
- representative assemblies would then command a majority - indirect??
- in white majority nations, the british used direct rule
1872 = cape colony
1890 = western australia
37
give the fact about tea plantations and economic growth in india from 1851
tea plantations increased from 1 in 1851 to 295 in 1871
* tea increased in value from 24,000 pounds to 24,000,000 pounds
38
what was the 1835 brief minute on education
- a quote displaying the british emphasis on a civilising mission within india
- displays a perception of indian incompetence
39
how was CULTURAL INTERFERENCE a cause of the indian mutiny
1. enfield cartridge controversy on may 10th 1857 - refused to use pork and cow fat in cartridges (violates hinduism and the caste concept) - insensitive
- at meerut, troops are imprisoned for a refusal to use cartridges
- native policy?
2. introduction of the India Bill 1813 - granted permission for the use and power of missionaries in India, which they felt undermined hinduism and was attempting to eradicate this practice
- this was consolidated by bhadur shah II being removed as a muslim leader
3. bangalore conspiracy 1830s - again notions of violating hinduism and the cultural provisions it imposes - a pig's head is left outside a mosque
4. changes to practice and convention
- 1856 hindu marriages act - legalised the remarriage of widows under EIC rule
- sati practice is outlawed in 1827
40
describe the famine of 1768/1769 and british responses to it
- lack of water and rain = lack of crop cultivation
- caused over 3-5 million deaths
- the EIC refuses to provide aid, and deem it as 'beyond their responsibility'
- british continue with normal tax collection
- leads to the 1773 regulating act so the state was now involved in imperial matters
41
agricultural growth in india post mutiny
- mercantilism allowed for an increase in indigo, cotton and opium exports
- plantations for tea and coffee were established
- tea clearance acts give tea land to european planters to cultivate tea land to export
- 250,000 acres of land in south india was dedicated to coffee plantation
(led to the BLUE MUTINY - mistreatment of indian workers in indigo plantations)
42
list the 5 key events in the indian mutiny, briefly describing each
1. mangal pandey rebellion 1857
- pandey attempts to shoot a british officer with his foot due to cartridge incidents in march 1858
- pandey is hung for challenging EIC control
- but his resistance encouraged others to resist EIC control
2. cartridge controvery at meerut
- the british implement cartridges using pig and cow fat
- indians (specifically hindus) refuse to use these
- the british strip positions and titles from these resistant sepoys, by sentencing them to hard labour
- liberation supports break into gaos to let out those imprisoned
- 50 europeans killed
3. cawnpore uprising
- rebel forces shoot with nana sahib against british forces, and destroy their supplies
- mutineers then slaughter british forces, in which the british soliders respond by doing the same thing
4. seige of lucknow by mutineers
- mutineers would initiate rebellions against the british expansion in lucknow with EIC forces and Agra
- british soliders are barricaded and massacred
- 2500 casualties
5. relief of lucknow
- the british try to provide aid access to lucknow, which fail
- over 2000 die trying to deliver aid
- this forces the british to withdraw
43
what were the motivations for a british presence in india
1. economic motivations
- rich resources in cotton, indigo etc
- would enrich the domestic economy
- profit driven which could be reinvested in britain
- would provide stable income + growth
2. civilising motivations
- wanted to spread ideas about christianity and provide a degree of religious enlightenment
- felt an obligation to spread their religious values
44
describe the knife of sugar statement / its importance
a statement made in 1871 by Dadabhai Naoroji
- it displays how educated indians (who were typically loyal to the british) recognise the benefits and lack of benefit of empire
- recognition by elites that empire was extractive and materialistic
*displays if empire was benefitting locals
45
who and when set up the National Indian Association
mary carpenter in 1870
46
describe how india was ruled under the EIC
- there was strict control, through a monarch, governor and local councils
- there were native states, and british states
- it was taken by robert clive
- there was an imposed hierarchy system, giving amplified voices to upper classes - this further entrenched inferiority of local individuals
- the british were extremely reliant on local help, but were generally supported because they would offer technology and advancement
- the british were assertive in ruling and were much more outcome driven (much more about what material could be obtained)
- india was heavily westernised through anglican laws being introduced, which undermined hindu culture, teaching christianity as to be of more importance
- it was through military action (ie battle of plassey) that the british expanded into india without consent
- it was an informal empire (as the british had control over administration, tax collection, and exploiting resources)
47
2 key statistics and facts about the indian mutiny itself 1857
1. 13,000 british died, 40,000 indians died
2. british spend 36 million pounds to defeat indians
48
describe the administration of india
1. there was a viceroy of india who had a legislative council, with expertise in finance, law, home affairs, the economy and the army
2. there were then provincial governors who had their own leg councils, but were more focused on local administration and representing the viceroy on practical issues
3. there were also princely states which were ruled by maharajahs and were loyal to the crown (had 'agents' and 'residents' to influence policy)
- this administration would collect taxation, maintain law and order and administer the law
49
when was queen victoria declared empress of india
1877
- was appointed by disraeli - mainly was a political act
- was also an act to display how the british wanted to assert their constant imperial presence and power
50
1872 indian christian marriage act
- allowed for intermarriage of christians and non-christians
- marriage is legitimate if at least one person is christian
51
describe the 1858 government of india act
1. the EIC was nationalised and was placed under crown rule
2. a secretary of state for india, and a viceroy position were created
3. there was an India Council created, of 15 members, with expertise of indian affairs and was used to advise on indian problems
4. the indian civil service was continued under the secretary of state
5. the doctrine of lapse was 'overturned' - giving power to local princely states (british fear of another mutiny)
6. the policy of religious laissez faire
7. cartridges are removed from use
52
when did Victoria become empress of India
1877
- she was appointed as this by Disraeli
- this was to further assert British imperial power and strength / constant presence in India
53
how was TAXATION / ECONOMICS a cause of the indian mutiny with precise evidence
1. vast economic exploitation of local indians
- british goods flooded and sidelined indian markets (ie textile + cotton)
- 83% of locally produced goods were extracted from peasants from Orissa
- the british impose limitations on the planting and growing of mulberry and silk
2. land revenues + high costs
- 60-80% of families were in debt
- permanent settlement act 1793 - land revenues were fixed at high rates
- consistently high taxation rates - 56% in most regions
- if tax was not provided, local peasants were beaten
- zamindars became responsible for collecting taxation
54
consequences of the indian mutiny
1. the EIC is nationalised and crown rule is therefore extended over india in 1858
2. the mogul emperor is put on trial and his sons executed so rebels lost hope of continuing this dynasty
3. india became depleted - villages were burnt etc
