Summary Flashcards
(171 cards)
1
Q
What is pharmacognosy?
A
The scientific study of drugs derived from natural sources like plants, animals, fungi, and microbes.
2
Q
What are natural products?
A
Bioactive compounds obtained from living organisms, used as drugs or drug templates.
3
Q
What are phytochemicals?
A
Plant-derived chemical compounds, often with therapeutic effects.
4
Q
What are secondary metabolites?
A
Non-essential plant compounds used for defense or attraction; often bioactive.
5
Q
Name three classes of secondary metabolites.
A
- Alkaloids
- Terpenoids
- Phenolics
6
Q
What is Rongoā Māori?
A
Traditional Māori medicine using holistic practices including herbs, mirimiri, and karakia.
7
Q
How long has Western Herbal Medicine (WHM) been practiced?
A
Over 2,500 years.
8
Q
What is the WHO’s stance on traditional medicines?
A
Supports integration into health systems for global health coverage.
9
Q
Define Western Herbal Medicine.
A
A holistic, vitalistic system using herbs to support natural healing processes.
10
Q
What are Traditional Plant Medicines (TPMs)?
A
Whole-plant medicines used traditionally to treat the person, not just the disease.
11
Q
Example of traditional → modern drug?
A
Artemisinin from sweet wormwood (malaria), Aspirin from willow bark.
12
Q
What did Central Otago thyme studies show?
A
NZ thyme had superior antimicrobial effects to European varieties.
13
Q
What’s the difference between WHM and conventional medicine?
A
WHM supports self-healing; conventional often targets disease directly.
14
Q
What’s the benefit of using whole plant extracts over isolated compounds?
A
Synergy – combined compounds work better and more safely together.
15
Q
What is the ‘herbal synergy’ concept?
A
Multiple plant constituents interact for enhanced therapeutic effect.
16
Q
Why is WHM considered safe?
A
Uses gentler, balanced whole-plant preparations with historical evidence.
17
Q
What condition is St John’s Wort used for?
A
Depression and anxiety.
18
Q
What does Rongoā Māori encompass?
A
Healing through herbs, massage (mirimiri), prayer (karakia), and spiritual practices.
19
Q
What is the role of whenua in Rongoā Māori?
A
Connection to land as a foundation for health and healing.
20
Q
Name three common techniques in Rongoā Māori.
A
- Herbal teas
- Mirimiri
- Karakia
21
Q
What is Rongoā Rākau?
A
Plant-based Māori medicine using native flora.
22
Q
What was the Tohunga Suppression Act?
A
1907 law banning traditional Māori healing practices.
23
Q
What’s important when harvesting rongoā plants?
A
Follow tikanga – karakia before harvest, return unused parts to nature.
24
Q
What was the WAI262 claim about?
A
Māori rights to control their traditional knowledge and natural resources.
25
What is Harakeke used for?
Treating skin infections, splints, and wound sewing.
26
Traditional uses of Kawakawa?
For digestion, pain relief, infections, and fever.
27
What are Mānuka's medicinal properties?
Antibacterial; used in teas, honeys, and skin healing.
28
What is Horopito traditionally used for?
Colds, nausea, and skin infections; spicy-tasting leaf.
29
How many medicinal plant species are estimated worldwide?
Around 53,000 species.
30
What are Plant Secondary Metabolites (PSMs)?
Non-essential compounds that protect plants and have medicinal properties.
31
Name the 4 main classes of PSMs.
* Phenolics
* Terpenoids
* Alkaloids
* Glucosinolates
32
What are phenolics known for?
Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects (e.g., flavonoids).
33
What therapeutic properties do terpenoids have?
Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antifungal.
34
What is special about alkaloids?
Nitrogen-containing, often toxic, but medicinal (e.g., morphine, caffeine).
35
Where are glucosinolates mainly found and their benefit?
In Brassicaceae family; linked to cancer prevention.
36
Why are scientific names important?
Provide unique, universal identification and reflect evolutionary relationships.
37
What is the basic taxonomic hierarchy?
Family > Genus > Species.
38
Which plant group dominates medicinal plant diversity?
Flowering plants (angiosperms).
39
Name two important medicinal plant families.
* Asteraceae (Daisy family)
* Lamiaceae (Mint family)
40
How does taxonomy help medicinal research?
Predicts medicinal properties and prevents misidentification.
41
What are natural products (NPs)?
Complex compounds from plants, microbes, marine life, used as drug leads.
42
Difference between primary and secondary metabolites?
* Primary: essential for survival
* Secondary: provide defense and medicinal benefits
43
Name four classes of secondary metabolites used in drugs.
* Alkaloids
* Terpenoids
* Phenylpropanoids
* Polyketides
44
What challenges exist in natural product extraction?
Low yield, sustainability, environmental impact.
45
What are three production methods for natural products?
* Total synthesis
* Semi-synthesis
* Biosynthesis
46
Why develop drug analogues from natural products?
To improve efficacy, reduce toxicity, and enhance pharmacokinetics.
47
What is total synthesis?
Complete chemical synthesis of complex natural products from simple starting materials; often multi-step, costly, and complex.
48
What is semi-synthesis?
Combines natural biosynthesized precursors with chemical steps to produce final products; more practical and sustainable.
49
What is biosynthesis?
Natural enzymatic production of complex molecules inside organisms.
50
Give an example of semi-synthesis in drug production.
Paclitaxel, made semi-synthetically from 10-Deacetylbaccatin from yew needles.
51
Why is total synthesis less commonly used commercially?
It is time-consuming, costly, and complex.
52
What percentage of vascular plants in NZ are endemic?
About 80%.
53
What traditional knowledge informs NZ natural product use?
Mātauranga Māori (traditional Māori knowledge).
54
What are common steps in discovering natural medicines?
* Bioassay-guided isolation
* Structure elucidation
* SAR studies
* Clinical testing
55
Name a medicinal compound from NZ plants and its activity.
Pukateine from pukatea bark – analgesic.
56
What challenges limit some natural products’ medical use?
Poor solubility and bioavailability.
57
What marine organism was the source of halichondrins?
Sponges (Halichondria okadai and Lissodendoryx).
58
What FDA-approved drug was developed from halichondrin?
Eribulin (Halaven) for breast cancer.
59
What is neosaxitoxin used for?
Experimental pain medication.
60
What discovery methods are used for marine natural products?
Traditional knowledge and broad bioassay screening.
61
Name four major drugs derived from natural products.
* Penicillin
* Aspirin
* Paclitaxel
* Metformin
62
What are the phases in drug development?
* Discovery
* Preclinical
* Clinical Trials (Phases I-III)
* Regulatory Approval
* Marketing
63
What laws protect intellectual property in NZ?
* Patents Act
* Trade Marks Act
* Copyright Act
* Designs Act
* Geographical Indications Act
* Plant Variety Rights Act
64
What is bioprospecting?
Ethical, permission-based use of natural resources and indigenous knowledge.
65
What is biopiracy?
Unauthorized or exploitative use of indigenous knowledge or resources.
66
How does Māori IP system differ from Anglo-American system?
Māori system emphasizes collective ownership and cultural context; Anglo-American system focuses on individual ownership and legal rights.
67
What is extraction in natural product chemistry?
A separation process transferring compounds from plant material to a solvent.
68
What factors influence the choice of extraction method?
Source material, target compound properties, and extraction goals (quantity, purity).
69
Name a cold extraction method suitable for heat-sensitive compounds.
Maceration (soaking powder in solvent at room temp).
70
What is Soxhlet extraction?
A reflux method using a thimble to recycle solvent for efficient extraction, but may degrade heat-sensitive compounds.
71
What is Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE)?
Uses ultrasonic waves to disrupt cells, speeding extraction with less solvent.
72
Which method uses CO2 above critical temperature and pressure for extraction?
Supercritical Fluid Extraction (sCO2).
73
What is Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) used for?
Simple, quick, inexpensive qualitative separation of compounds on silica gel.
74
What distinguishes High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) from TLC?
HPLC uses high pressure and small particles for fast, sensitive, quantitative and preparative analysis.
75
Why is total synthesis important in natural product drug discovery?
To confirm structure, enable SAR studies, and provide compounds for biological testing.
76
What happened with the original reported antibacterial activity of Spiroleucettadine?
Synthetic versions showed no antibacterial activity but had anticancer effects targeting p53.
77
What is the One Health concept?
Interconnected health of humans, animals, and the environment.
78
Name a common route of administration for veterinary medicines.
* Oral
* Parenteral
* Topical
* Intramammary
* Collars
79
What is zoopharmacognosy?
Self-medication behavior of animals using natural materials for disease prevention or treatment.
80
What are primary cells?
Cells directly from tissue, physiologically relevant but costly and limited in lifespan.
81
What is the advantage of 3D cell cultures over 2D?
Closer to in vivo environment with cell interactions and tissue-like structure.
82
What is the role of in silico assays?
Computer simulations to predict drug interactions and ADMET properties.
83
What are the main advantages of using animal models in drug research?
* Physiological similarity
* Ability to study whole-organism effects
* Predictive value
* Regulatory requirement
84
Name two major limitations of animal models.
* Ethical concerns
* Species differences limiting human applicability
85
What is the purpose of Phase 1 clinical trials?
Assess safety, dosage, and tolerability in a small group of healthy volunteers or patients.
86
Which clinical trial phase confirms drug efficacy and safety in a large population?
Phase 3
87
What is the focus of Phase 4 clinical trials?
Post-marketing surveillance to monitor long-term safety and effectiveness.
88
What is critical appraisal in research?
Systematic evaluation of research validity, reliability, and relevance.
89
What is the first step in the Evidence-Based Medicine process?
Formulating a clear clinical question.
90
What is the difference between filtered and unfiltered evidence?
* Unfiltered = primary studies
* Filtered = systematic reviews/meta-analyses
91
Name three factors that affect research quality.
* Randomization
* Blinding
* Sample size
92
What system helps grade the quality of evidence after appraisal?
GRADE system.
93
What does pharmacokinetics study?
What the body does to the drug (ADME).
94
Define bioavailability.
The fraction of an administered dose that reaches systemic circulation unchanged.
95
What does Cmax represent?
The maximum plasma concentration of a drug after administration.
96
Name two barriers to oral drug absorption.
* Enzymatic degradation
* First-pass metabolism
97
How do natural products challenge pharmacokinetics?
They have variable composition and unknown actives affecting absorption and metabolism.
98
What is pharmacodynamics?
The study of drug effects and mechanisms of action in the body.
99
What does the Therapeutic Index represent?
The ratio of toxic dose (TD50) to effective dose (ED50), indicating drug safety margin.
100
How do drugs differ from nutraceuticals and natural products?
* Drugs are purified and regulated
* Nutraceuticals are food-derived with less regulation
* Natural products are complex mixtures with variable composition
101
Why are adverse effects common in natural products?
Due to unknown toxic components and lack of standardized safety data.
102
Give an example of a natural product interaction affecting drug safety.
Garlic increasing bleeding risk with anticoagulants.
103
Why is quality control challenging for herbal medicines?
Because they are complex mixtures with variable chemical composition.
104
Name two common problems affecting herbal medicine quality.
* Contamination
* Adulteration
105
What are the consequences of poor quality herbal medicines?
* Treatment failure
* Adverse reactions
* Loss of consumer trust
106
What guidelines promote good practices in herbal medicine cultivation and processing?
WHO’s GAP and GACP guidelines.
107
What is adulteration in herbal medicines?
Adding undeclared pharmaceuticals or fillers to herbal products.
108
What is Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP)?
A system of regulations and guidelines ensuring consistent production and control of pharmaceutical/natural products to meet quality, safety, and efficacy standards.
109
Name four regulatory bodies enforcing GMP globally.
* FDA (USA)
* EMA (Europe)
* WHO (International)
* Medsafe (New Zealand)
110
How are Dietary Supplements and Natural Health Products (NHPs) regulated differently in New Zealand?
Dietary Supplements are regulated under Dietary Supplements Regulations 1985 and cannot make therapeutic claims; NHPs fall under the Medicines Act 1981 when making therapeutic claims or containing medicinal ingredients.
111
What are some key responsibilities of the authority established under the Natural Health Products Bill in NZ?
* Maintaining ingredient databases
* Prescribing labeling
* Requiring product notification
* Licensing manufacturers
* Conducting safety assessments
* Enforcing recalls
112
When does a natural product need to be regulated as a medicine under Medsafe in NZ?
When it makes therapeutic claims such as treating or preventing disease.
113
What is the Wai 262 claim about?
It relates to Māori rights over indigenous flora, fauna.
114
What law do natural products fall under when making therapeutic claims in NZ?
Medicines Act 1981
## Footnote
This law regulates the claims and ingredients related to medicinal products.
115
What are some key responsibilities of the authority under the Natural Health Products Bill in NZ?
* Maintaining ingredient databases
* Prescribing labeling
* Requiring product notification
* Licensing manufacturers
* Conducting safety assessments
* Enforcing recalls
116
When must a natural product be regulated as a medicine under Medsafe in NZ?
When it makes therapeutic claims such as treating or preventing disease.
117
What is the Wai 262 claim about?
It relates to Māori rights over indigenous flora, fauna, and traditional knowledge.
118
What is a drug delivery system?
A formulation or device that safely brings a therapeutic agent to a specific body site at a certain time and rate.
119
What are the key physicochemical properties considered in preformulation of natural products?
* Solubility
* Molecular dissociation (pKa)
* Partition coefficient (Log P)
* Dissolution rate
120
What is the difference between solubility and dissolution?
Solubility is the maximum concentration a drug can dissolve in a solvent; dissolution is the process and rate at which the drug dissolves.
121
What does the Noyes-Whitney equation describe?
The dissolution rate of a drug, considering factors like surface area, solubility, and concentration gradient.
122
Describe the Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS) classes.
* Class I: High solubility, high permeability
* Class II: Low solubility, high permeability
* Class III: High solubility, low permeability
* Class IV: Low solubility, low permeability
123
Why is dry granulation preferred for herbal tablet formulation?
Because many herbal powders are moisture-sensitive.
124
What are some advanced drug delivery systems used for natural products?
* Emulsions
* Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS)
* Nanoparticles
* Liposomes
* Dendrimers
* Cyclodextrins
125
What is the main barrier to drug absorption in the skin?
The stratum corneum (SC).
126
Name three routes by which drugs can penetrate the skin.
* Transcellular
* Intercellular
* Via appendages (e.g., hair follicles)
127
List some physicochemical factors that affect skin absorption.
* Partition coefficient
* Molecular size
* Skin hydration
* pH
* Concentration gradient
128
What are the advantages of transdermal drug delivery?
* Avoids first-pass metabolism
* Non-invasive
* Sustained release
* Suitable for patients unable to take oral medication
129
What are the common types of transdermal delivery systems?
* Patches (drug-in-adhesive, matrix, reservoir)
* Creams
* Ointments
* Hydrogels
130
What are liposomes and why are they useful in transdermal delivery?
Phospholipid bilayer vesicles that enhance skin penetration and biocompatibility.
131
How do microneedles enhance transdermal delivery?
They create painless, transient microchannels in the skin.
132
What role do penetration enhancers play in transdermal formulations?
They temporarily disrupt the stratum corneum lipid structure to improve drug absorption.
133
What is a pharmacopoeia?
Official publication setting quality, identity, and purity standards for drugs.
134
Name 3 key pharmacopoeias and their countries.
* USP-NF (USA)
* BP (UK)
* EP (Europe)
135
What is a monograph?
Detailed standards including ID, purity, and assays for a drug/product.
136
What is a challenge with herbal monographs?
Species ID difficulty and product variability.
137
How does DNA barcoding help?
Improves species identification and detects adulteration.
138
Why is dissolution testing important?
Measures drug release rate, ensures batch consistency.
139
What are probiotics?
Live microorganisms providing health benefits.
140
What are BLIS Technologies’ key probiotic strains?
* S. salivarius K12 (oral)
* M18 (dental)
* Micrococcus luteus Q24 (skin)
141
What are bacteriocins (BLIS)?
Antimicrobial peptides produced by probiotics to inhibit pathogens.
142
What is the historical evolution of probiotics?
From fermented foods to targeted therapeutic strains.
143
What are the key stages in probiotic development?
* Strain ID
* Safety
* Stability
* Efficacy
* Formulation
* Production
* QA/QC
144
What are the main steps in fermentation?
* Seed culture
* Large fermenters
* Harvest
* Freeze-dry
* Milling
* QC
145
What is quality assurance in probiotic manufacturing?
Batch records, Certificates of Analysis, accredited lab testing.
146
What is the importance of packaging in probiotics?
Protects from oxygen, moisture, and temperature to maintain viability.
147
What is the regulatory status of K12/M18?
GRAS (USA), PLA (Canada), approved in multiple countries.
148
What are the two main sources of natural products globally?
* Wild harvesting (~72% in India)
* Cultivation (~50% globally)
149
What are key risks to sustainable natural product sourcing?
* Overharvesting
* Pollution
* Climate change
* Biodiversity loss
150
What guidelines help ensure sustainable natural product production?
* WHO Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)
* Good Collection Practices (GCP)
* Certification schemes
151
Why is cultivation preferred over wild harvesting?
It allows controlled, sustainable supply and efficient use of plant parts.
152
What biotechnological methods support sustainable production?
* Tissue culture (axillary buds, adventitious shoots)
* Clonal propagation
* Germplasm storage
* Cryopreservation
153
How does clonal propagation help natural product production?
Improves yields, uniformity, and quality consistency.
154
Why is germplasm storage important?
Maintains genetic diversity and conserves plant resources.
155
What is the urgent need in natural product production?
Sustainable sourcing, improved cultivation methods, and biotechnological conservation.
156
What are the benefits of moving plant production from field to controlled conditions?
* Reduces environmental impact
* Prevents overharvesting
* Allows control over quantity and quality
157
What are key factors controlled in sustainable plant production?
* External environment (light, temperature, humidity)
* Internal environment (media, growth conditions)
* Plant genetics
158
What is vertical farming?
Indoor farming of high-value plants that increases yield and ensures quality.
159
Name three types of plant cell cultures used in bioreactors.
* Suspension cultures
* Immobilised cell cultures
* Hairy root cultures
160
What are the main types of bioreactors used for plant cell cultures?
* Bubble column
* Airlift
* Stirred tank
* Immobilised reactors
* Hairy root reactors
161
What are elicitors in plant biotechnology?
Factors that trigger biosynthesis of secondary metabolites.
162
What genetic engineering tools are used for plants?
* Agrobacterium tumefaciens for T-DNA transfer
* CRISPR-Cas9 for precise gene editing
163
What is a case study example of metabolic engineering in plants?
Transgenic expression of taxadiene synthase to increase paclitaxel yield.
164
How do metabolic engineering and synthetic biology differ?
Metabolic engineering redirects pathways; synthetic biology builds new biological pathways.
165
What is HPTLC and why is it used?
High Performance Thin Layer Chromatography; for accurate and reproducible analysis.
166
How does DNA barcoding assist natural product identification?
Identifies species using conserved DNA regions; detects adulterants.
167
What are examples of nano-delivery systems for natural products?
* Liposomes
* Polymeric nanoparticles (e.g., PLGA)
* Cyclodextrins
* Phytosomes
168
What are benefits of transdermal delivery using nanofibers?
* Controlled release
* Antioxidant and bactericidal properties
169
Why are zebrafish embryos used in natural product evaluation?
Transparent, low-cost, high-throughput, genetically relevant for studies.
170
What is molecular docking used for in natural products?
Screening phytochemicals for potential biological targets.
171
Why is the cosmetics industry important in natural products?
Rapid growth, sustainability focus, creates employment and innovation opportunities.
