Theory, Classic Studies Flashcards
(20 cards)
scientific method
- striving for objectivity
- question common sensical explanations of phenomena, “intuitive doesn’t mean right”, “common sense hinders evaluation of new knowledge”
Science and Common Sense Differences
- conceptual schemes and theoretical structures
- systemic and empirical of themes and hypotheses
- control - rule out alternative explanations
- ascertain whether relations between phenomena are causes
- avoids things that can’t be tested
Peirce, 1955
to satisfy doubts, methods should be found by which our beliefs are nothing human, but external objectivity
Fundamental hypotheses of science
- there are real things, whose characters are entirely independent of our opinions of them
Conant (1961)
- contrasts of 2 views on science
static view
- activity contributes systemised information to world
- discovery of new ideas are added to existing research
- present state of knowledge that is added to consistently
dynamic view
- advocated for by Conant
- science = activity
- knowledge is valuable because it provides base for other research
- emphasis on discovery
- theory and interconnected conceptual schemata to advance research
- imaginative problem solving
function of science
practical -
- improvement, progress, discoveries, advancing knowledge
Braithwaite (1955) -
- establish general laws, to connect knowledge to events, and make reliable predictions
basic aims - theory (ultimate aim)
- constructs that present systematic view of phenomena by specifying relation by variables
- propositions, definitions, explains phenomena
Scientific research
1) problem - obstacle - idea
2) hypotheses
3) reasoning (deduction)
4) observation - test - experiment
Milgram (1974), Obedience to Authority: an experimental view
during the aftermath of WWII
- ordinary people can commit extraordinary acts through sheer attention
when commenting on Asch’s conformity studies
- dissatisfied that the test of conformity was judgement about lines
- started in early 60s
Milgram (1974) Pilot Studies
calibrated confederates
- findings stern and intellectual “experimenter and a mild and submissive leaner
- make a targeted tension, right amount of contact between subjects and the learner
experimenter - encourages subject
subject - administers shock
fake test subject - pretends to feel pain from shock
Milgram (1974) Pilot Studies - The learner and the experimenter
“the learner”
- “I have a slight heart condition”
- 75 volts - express pain
- 150 volts - “get me out”
- 300 volts - “please”
- 330+ - stops responding
the experimenter
- please continue
- experiment requires you to
- essential you must do this
- you have no other choice
physical damages: explained to subject, there is no permanent tissue damage
learner objections: whether learner likes it or not you must go on
Milgram (1974) pilot studies results
Predicted results
- 1.2% would fully obey
Results
- 65% went to max level and never defied experimenter
- 6 refused to go on at 150 volts, of the total 14 who refused
Milgram (1974) changing experimenter look, or experimenter through phone
made hard looking experimenter a more so innocuous-looking victim
- 50% to the end
experimenter orders the shocker by phone
- 20.5% were fully obedient
Milgram (1974) women and voice feedback, proximity changes (closeness, touch)
women as subjects
- 65% fully obedient
voice feedback - victim in adjacent room, vocal protest through the walls
- 62% obeyed
proximity - same room few feet away
- 40% obedience
touch proximity - shock only when hand reached onto shock plate, 50% did not put hand on, experimenter forced, 50% obeyed
Explaining lowered obedience the closer the victim is (Milgrim)
- empathetic cues
- more difficult to remove victim from thought, when closer
- increased shame and guilt
- closeness may cause alliance
institutional context, learner demands shock, ordinary man gives order, S as a bystander (milgrim)
in office building
- 48% obedient
demands shock
- experimenter said leaner reactions were severe
- every subject stopped administering shocks upon experimenters order
ordinary man
- main s reads word pairs and gives shocks
- e leaves, confed then advises to increase shock level
- 20% obeyed
S as a bystander
- when S would not obey, confederate said they would take over administration of shocks
- of the 14, all protested and 5 took physical action
two authorities (pilgrim)
contradictory commands
- at 150 volt level, one gives command to go on, other gives command to stop
- one s stopped before argument, 18 stopped at argument
conformity vs obedience
conformity: social pressure, goes along with peers (Asch)
obedience: action of a person who complies with authority (Milgram)
strip search phone call scam
real world example of obedience
- man phoned restaurants pretending to be police officer, convinced manager to conduct strip searches and more
conclusions
- varied from 0% to 90%
- don’t just obey anyone but authority
