unit 4

Question 1

Learning

Answer 1

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or new behaviors

Question 2

Habituation

Answer 2

The diminishing of a physiological or emotional response to a frequently repeated stimulus.

Question 3

Associative Learning

Answer 3

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

Question 4

Stimulus

Answer 4

Any event or situation that evokes a response.

Question 5

Respondent Behavior

Answer 5

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Question 6

Operant Behavior

Answer 6

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

Question 7

Cognitive Learning

Answer 7

The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

Question 8

Classical Conditioning

Answer 8

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

Question 9

Behaviorism

Answer 9

The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

Question 10

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Answer 10

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Question 11

Unconditioned Response (UR)

Answer 11

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (US).

Question 12

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Answer 12

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR).

Question 13

Conditioned Response (CR)

Answer 13

In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Question 14

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Answer 14

In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

Question 15

Acquisition

Answer 15

The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response.

Question 16

Higher-order Conditioning

Answer 16

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

Question 17

Extinction

Answer 17

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Question 18

Spontaneous Recovery

Answer 18

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Question 19

Generalization

Answer 19

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Question 20

Discrimination

Answer 20

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Question 21

Operant Conditioning

Answer 21

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Question 22

Law of Effect

Answer 22

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Question 23

Operant Chamber

Answer 23

A chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Question 24

Reinforcement

Answer 24

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Question 25

Positive Reinforcement

Answer 25

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers.

Question 26

Shaping

Answer 26

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Question 27

Discriminative Stimulus

Answer 27

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

Question 28

Negative Reinforcement

Answer 28

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli.

Question 29

Primary Reinforcer

Answer 29

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

Question 30

Conditioned Reinforcer

Answer 30

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer.

Question 31

Reinforcement Schedule

Answer 31

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Question 32

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

Answer 32

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Question 33

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule

Answer 33

Reinforcing a response only part of the time.

Question 34

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Answer 34

Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Question 35

Variable-Ratio Schedule

Answer 35

Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Question 36

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Answer 36

Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Question 37

Variable-Interval Schedule

Answer 37

Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Question 38

Punishment

Answer 38

An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

Question 39

Biofeedback

Answer 39

A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

Question 40

Preparedness

Answer 40

A biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value.

Question 41

Instinctive Drift

Answer 41

The tendency of learned behaviors to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

Question 42

Cognitive Map

Answer 42

A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment.

Question 43

Latent Learning

Answer 43

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Question 44

Intrinsic Motivation

Answer 44

A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

Question 45

Insight

Answer 45

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution.

Question 46

Extrinsic Motivation

Answer 46

A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Question 47

Problem-focused Coping

Answer 47

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

Question 48

Emotion-focused Coping

Answer 48

Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction.

Question 49

Personal Control

Answer 49

The extent to which people perceive control over their environment rather than feeling helpless.

Question 50

Learned Helplessness

Answer 50

The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

Question 51

External Locus of Control

Answer 51

The perception that chance or outside forces beyond one’s personal control determine one’s fate.

Question 52

Internal Locus of Control

Answer 52

The perception that one controls one’s own fate.

Question 53

Self-control

Answer 53

The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.

Question 54

Observational Learning

Answer 54

Learning by observing others.

Question 55

Modeling

Answer 55

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Question 56

Mirror Neurons

Answer 56

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

Question 57

Prosocial Behavior

Answer 57

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

Question 58

albert bandura

Answer 58

Bobo Doll Experiment demonstrated observational learning, where preschool children imitated aggressive behavior they witnessed in adults. he also suggested that children may learn prejudicial attitudes and behaviors through observing and modeling their parents' beliefs and actions.

Question 59

ivan pavlov

Answer 59

Conducted the first experiments in associative learning. Classical conditioning. Demonstrated that learning can be studied objectively Showed that many animals, including humans, can be classically conditioned

Question 60

robert rescorla

Answer 60

Demonstrated that cognition is important in classical conditioning Subject must know that one stimulus reliably predicts another (his “contingency model”) CS must reliably predict the US for conditioning to occur

Question 61

b.f. skinner

Answer 61

Psychologist most closely associated with the study of operant conditioning - Elaborated on the work of E.L. Thorndike. Believed the environment determines an individual’s behavior. Criticized for failing to take into account cognitive influences on behavior

Question 62

edward thorndike

Answer 62

Formulated the law of effect- responses that lead to satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated; responses that lead to unsatisfying outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

Question 63

edward tolman

Answer 63

Pioneering research on latent learning and cognitive maps. Latent learning - incidental learning that becomes apparent only when there is an incentive to demonstrate it (Ex: when you get your driver’s license, you know how to use your turn signals even though no one explicitly taught you and you never made an outright effort to learn this) Cognitive map - mental representations of the environment

Question 64

john b. watson

Answer 64

Introduced term “behaviorism”, and considered himself a behaviorist Emphasized that learning should be explained without any reference to mental processes, but only observable behavior Showed how behaviors and emotions could be classically conditioned “Little Albert” study: demonstrated that fear can be conditioned in humans & generalized.

Question 65

john garcia

Answer 65

Studied the importance of biological predispositions in conditioning, particularly taste aversion. Garcia Effect: being averse to tastes you associate with a negative reaction (ex. you vomited gummy bears, now you have a distaste for their taste/smell). Biology limits classical conditioning Challenged the idea that any perceivable neutral stimulus could become a conditioned stimulus.