Unit 6: Settlement Dynamics

Question 1

Characteristics of traditional rural societies in HICs

Answer 1

Close-knit communities with everyone knowing and interacting with everyone else
Considerable homogeneity in social traits
Family ties, especially of extended family, are stronger
Religion is given more importance than in urban society
Class differences are less pronounced. Occupational differentiation exists but is also not as pronounced. Small settlement size results in greater mixing which weakens the effects of social differentiation
Less mobility both spatial and social

Question 2

Changes in rural areas

Answer 2

Due to:
Rural-urban migration
Urban-rural migration
Consequences of urban growth
Technological and mechanical changes
Rural planning of local and national governments
Balance of funding from governments between urban and rural areas

Question 3

Rural-urban continuum in HICs

Answer 3

The rapid change in rural areas in the last 100 years has blurred the lines that separated the characteristics of urban from rural areas. This has led to a spectrum running from most urbanised to most rural. Paul Cloke in 1978 used 16 indices to produce an index of rurality for England and Wales

Question 4

Changes to the rural economy

Answer 4

Economy of rural areas no longer dominated by farmers and landowners
As traditional rural jobs have declined, new employers have moved into the countryside
Most businesses in rural areas are small and medium sized enterprises
Employments has grown more in rural areas than urban areas exacerbated by COVID
Other big land users in rural areas are recreation, tourism and environmental conservation

Question 5

Changes to characteristics of rural communities

Answer 5

Social change has fueled in-migration of particular groups of people
Middle classes benefitted from cheaper housing in the 1970s to move to the countryside
This has changed dynamics of communities and increased house prices to the detriment of the original communities that were largely from workers. This has forced those people to move elsewhere

Question 6

Gentrification of rural areas

Answer 6

Refers to the urban middle class migrating to rural settlements for living and recreational space causing change in the rural social class structure leading to the shortage of rural housing and the relocation of indigenous people
This could lead to a change in the type of businesses and services available in rural areas

Question 7

Green belts

Answer 7

Established to prevent the continued growth of many of the largest cities. They are rings of protected open land circling an urban area. Aim to protect surrounding countryside from development and from 2 large cities merging. To protect rural areas from excessive housing and development, new homes were focused in urban areas (key villages). A consequence was that existing housing in the countryside became even more in demand and expensive

Question 8

Government policies

Answer 8

Social and economic changes that impact the countryside have led voters to question the priorities/policies of governments. Led to a refocusing on rural populations and more laws to protect jobs, houses and services in these areas

Question 9

Changes to agriculture

Answer 9

Agriculture is not a big employer of people in HICs anymore. Individual farm sizes have increased over time with woodland areas and hedgerows removed to make way for larger fields that can be worked by tractors and combine harvesters. Agricultural wages have remained low significantly below national average. As profits in farming become harder to achieve many have turned to diversification

Question 10

Farm diversification

Answer 10

When a farm branches out from traditional farming by adding new money making activities. This can be an expansion into new innovations or non-agricultural business types

Question 11

Farm diversification opportunities

Answer 11

Renewables (29%)
Property letting (15%)
Holding lets (12%)
Livery stable (6%)
Leisure (5%)
Farm shop (3%)
Organic crops
Herbs
Bees
Pick your own
Barns to homes
Industrial units
Wind turbines
MTB

Question 12

Counterurbanisation

Answer 12

The process by which people migrate from urban to rural communities. This is for reasons such as job opportunities and simple lifestyles
Most evident just beyond greenbelts where rural settlements have grown and changed a lot
This counteracts the issue of rural depopulation

Question 13

Metropolitan villages

Answer 13

Stage 1 is characterised y the conversion of working buildings into houses with new buildings as infill but some new building might be at the village edge
The stage 2 change is ribbon development along roads leading out of the village
Stage 3 shows planned additions on a larger scale of council or private housing estates at the edge of villages
Not all evolve in the same way especially those with green belt restrictions

Question 14

Rural depopulation

Answer 14

Refers to the falling population in the countryside relative to urban areas. Was a concern in the 1960s in the UK and still is in LEDCs where rural-urban dominates. Counter-urbanisation in HICs has meant rural depopulation is limited to the most remote areas but exceptions occur where the economy is really struggling

Question 15

Rural depopulation model

Answer 15

Unmarried young adults migrate to regional centres for better socio-economic opportunities
Population decreases, ages and births fall below replacement level
Reduction in business services due to falling demand
Key social service provision cut
Loss of services induces out migration of young families and ensures in migration is minimal
Ageing population and loss of balanced community

Question 16

Rural services issue

Answer 16

Services and activities create a feeling of belonging and a sustainable future. Rural services have been in decline with an impact on the quality of life of people, especially without a car. Nearly half of communities have lost key local services. Poorer people in the countryside form a forgotten city of disadvantage. 1 in 13 primar schools closed since 1997 and more are under threat since they could lose funding if they don’t fill place. GP surgeries are also at risk due to polyclinics. 233000 are living in financial service deserts (no post offices in 1.25m or banks in 2.5m)

Question 17

Reasons for rual service decline

Answer 17

The effect of market forces and arrival of supermarkets in local areas making local services not competitive. Changing pattern of rural population with more mobile residents with different shopping patterns becoming a greater part of rural life. Change in expectations of residents no longer happy with poor and expensive services

Question 18

Key villages

Answer 18

The concept assumes that focussing services, facilities and employment in 1 settlement will satisfy needs of surrounding villages and hamlets. With falling demand dispersed services would decline so to mainina service provision, focus on locations with the greatest accessibility and combination of other advantages. Threshold populations could be assured and the downward spiral halted

Question 19

Rural transport problem

Answer 19

Increase in car ownership recently has had a bad effect on public transport. Has not disadvantaged rural car owners but increased isolation of the poor, elderly and young. Lack of public transport puts pressure on low income households to own a car. Increases in fuel prices have exacerbated the problem. UK rural railway lines may be under threat on a repeat of Beeching cuts of 1960. Fears about government intention of rural rails were first in 1998 when the transport minister said branch lines in sparsely populated areas might be replaced by buses. Could convert track beds into guided busways. Replacing trains with buses mean only half of former users use the replacement buses. 1 in 5 rural household lack a car and there is a low bus service in many areas

Question 20

Rural housing issue

Answer 20

Lack of affordable housing in villages means young people have to move to market towns or urban areas. 12% of rural housing is subsidised compared to 25% in urban areas. 1995 White Paper on Rural Development tried to improve rural housing by exempting villages with less than 3000 people from the right to buy for housing association tenants. This prevents housing moving to the open market and being bought at prices locals can’t afford. Government announced plans to speed up Ministry of Defence housing. 13000 emplyt MoD homes in the UK many rural. Rural households encouraged to take loders through rent a room

Question 21

Second home advantages

Answer 21

New employment opportunities
Local business get new business and profit
Shops benefit locals too
Property taces increase revenue
Less demand on local services
Renovations improve appearance
Residents can sell land at high prices
Contacts with urban owners expose residents

Question 22

Second home disadvantages

Answer 22

Costly utilities to meet demand borne by locals
Pushes up house prices for locals
Future schemes hindered by inflated land prices
Fragmentation of agricultural land
Destruction of natural environemnt
Visual degredation
Distracts local workforce from ordinary house building and maintenance
Different attitude of second home families disrupt community life

Question 23

Rural policy changes

Answer 23

Increased focus on amenities: value that society puts on natural and cultural amenities
Pressure to reform agricultural policy: need to address farm subsidies, role of WTO and international trade in farm produce
Decentralisation and trends in regional policy: a move from top-down to locally focused policies involving local stakeholder and central government having a reduced role

Question 24

Rural-urban migration

Answer 24

Is the dominant population shift in many LICs. The impacts vary in regions

Question 25

Benefits of rural-urban migration

Answer 25

Reduces rural population growth and pressure on food and water supplies Limits underemployment and unemployment Provides valuable income through remittances

Question 26

Challenges of rural-urban migration

Answer 26

Rural depopulation and an ageing population Closure of rural services (public and private) and the population so customers declines Insufficient labour to maintain agricultural production at former levels

Question 27

Diseases

Answer 27

The spread of illness and disease may exacerbate rural issues. The spread may be quicker due to poor access to health services and vaccines. In southern African countries the impact of AIDS resulted in further depopulation

Question 28

Poverty

Answer 28

Rural poverty accounts for 60% of global poverty but up to 90% in some. Many sub-saharan African countries have 65-90% of people in poverty in rural areas. In nearly all measures of quality of life, the poorest people in the countryside are worse off than the poorest people in cities. Most poverty in urban areas is caused by the migration of the rural poor into these areas for a better quality of life

Question 29

Causes of rural poverty

Answer 29

Political instability and civil strife Systematic discrimination on the basis of gender, race, ethnicity, religion or caste Ill defined property rights or unfair enforcement of agricultural rights to land and other natural resources High concentration of land ownership and unfair tenancy agreements. Rental agreements often favour the rich landowners at the expense of the poor Corrupt politicians and local governments Economic policies that discriminate or exclude the rural poor from development Large and rapidly growing families with high dependency ratios Imbalanced market forces favouring land owners and those with existing wealth External market shocks like climate change that impact rural livelihoods

Question 30

The first cities

Answer 30

The urban revolution is the change in society marked by the emergence of the first cities 5500 years ago The first cities mainly emerged in areas that are now LICs The catalyst for the change was when sedentary agriculture based on the domestication of animals and cereal farming steadily replaced nomadic life Trading centres began to develop after the first cities The medieval revival was the product of population growth and the resurgence of trade with the main urban settlements of the period located at points of greatest accessibility

Question 31

The urban industrial revolution

Answer 31

The 2nd urban revolution due to the introduction of mass production began in Britain in the late 18th century. The key invention was the steam engine. The demand for labour in coal towns and cities was satisfied by the freeing of agricultural labour By 1801 1/10th of England and Wales was living in cities >100000. Doubled again in 40 and 60 years. London was the first city to reach 1 m and was 2 m by 1851 Urbanisation quickened as the industrial revolution spread to other countries. Initial urbanisation of LICs was restricted to concentration of population around supplies of raw materials for affluent HICs By the most recent urban development in 1950, 27% live in towns and cities with most urbanites still in HICs. In HICs urbanisation was nearing completion

Question 32

Problems for planner in post 1945 urban explosion in LICs and MICs

Answer 32

The rapid urban growth of LICs and MICs in the late 20th century in general outpaced economic development creating problems for planners and politicians

Question 33

Urban exxplosion

Answer 33

Urban areas in LICs and MICs have been growing much faster than HICs did in the 19th century so urban explosion described contemporary trends

Question 34

The difference between urban growth and urbanisation

Answer 34

Some of the least urbanised countries (China and India) contain many of the worlds largest cities and are recording the fastest rates of growth

Question 35

Dependency theory and the capitalist economy

Answer 35

Dependency theory has been used to explain the urbanisation of LICs and MICs post 1950. Urbanisation here has been a response to the absorption of countries and regions into the global economy. The capitalist global economy induces urbanisation by concentrating production and consumption in locations that offer the best economies of scale and agglomeration, provide the greatest opportunities for industrial linkage and give maximum efficiency and least cost in term of control over supply sources

Question 36

TNCs impact on urban explosion

Answer 36

TNCs encourage urbanisation directly in response to localised investment. Also influence urbanisation indirectly through their impact on traditional patterns of production and employment

Question 37

Other urbanisation factors

Answer 37

Investment policies of central governments which generally favour urban over rural areas in an attempt to enhance prestige on international stage Higher wage rate and better employment protection in cities Greater access t healthcare and education Decline in demand for locally produced food as consumers increasingly favour imported food

Question 38

Backwash urbanisation

Answer 38

The combined result of these factors is backwash urbanisation, destroying the vitality of rural areas and putting pressure on cities

Question 39

Future urban growth

Answer 39

Urban growth rate should slow as a result of falling fertility rates and a deceleration in the urbanisation process as more of the population urbanises

Question 40

Current patterns of urban growth

Answer 40

Most urbanised regions are North America, Europe, Oceania and Latin America. Lowest levels of urbanisation are in Africa and Asia. Urban growth is highest in Asia and Africa since they contain the fastest growing urban areas. The urban population in 2014 was 54% of total (34% in 1960). By 2025 half the Asia and Africa will live in urban areas and 80% of urban dwellers will live in LICs and MICs. HIC urbanisation levels peaked in 1970 and have declined since due to counterurbanisation

Question 41

Urbansiation

Answer 41

A process in which populations shift from rural to urban areas like towns and cities and the ways in which societies adapt to this change

Question 42

Suburbanisation

Answer 42

The main factor in urban areas spreading out after the Industrial Revolution in the 1860s was the construction of suburban railway lines which spurred house building. Initially suburbanisation was middle class and after WWII with the growth of public housing, working class suburbs appeared. In the interwar period, 4.3m houses were built in the UK mainly in new suburbs. 30% were built by local councils

Question 43

Reasons for suburban growth

Answer 43

Willingness of local authorities to provide piped water and sewage, gas and electricity Expansion of building societies Low interest rates Development of public transport Improvements of road network In the late 20th century suburbanisation was limited by green belts and planning

Question 44

Counterurbanisation

Answer 44

Most consistent feature of population movement in most HIC cities where each level of settlement hierarchy is gaining people from urban tiers above and losing people to below. Still reasonable number of people moving the other way. Does not mean an overall population decline of this scale because change is also affected by natural increase an international migration

Question 45

Reurbanisation

Answer 45

Recently British cities have reversed population decline. Central government finance has been an important factor in the revival. New urban design also plays a role. Reduction in urban street crime due to the installation of automated closed-circuit surveillance cameras have significantly improved public perception of central areas. Rather than displacing crime to nearby areas the cameras caused a reduction in crime in surrounding areas. The government produced in the late 1990s the formation of 4.4m extra households in the next 20 years, 60% in existing urban areas due to the opposition of relaxing planning restrictions in the countryside. Many of the new households will b single person so existing urban areas may be where they prefer to live

Question 46

Suburbs

Answer 46

Are outlying areas of a city close enough to the centre for commuters. Mostly residential but have developed a sense of rurality

Question 47

Historical development of suburbs

Answer 47

1800-1900 saw rapid industrialisation. Industry outbid other potential land users and since a lot of workers were needed, unplanned housing was built. The housing was poor with few services and became no-go for middle class. Stimulated the middle class to move into suburbs. Continued to grow in inter and post war period. People move away from city centre for economic, social and environmental reasons. De-industrialisation made millions unemployed and unemployable due to limited skills. New jobs created in producer and service sectors but not enough to compensate. Urban unemployment rose, factories closed, dereliction rose and decentralisation sped up. Migrants to suburbs middle aged, mobile, affluent etc. Perceived social city problems (crime)

Question 48

Changing employment in suburbs

Answer 48

All industries faced issues as office booms caused land and rent prices to rise. Was better economically to sell industrial sites and many became bankrupt so relocate to suburbs to reduce costs, have expansion space, escape congestion and attractive landscapes. Many suburban families have both adults in skilled work. Increased the affluence of the suburbs. Advances in mass transport allow people to live further away from work

Question 49

Inner city consequences of suburbanisation

Answer 49

Suburbanisation of jobs leads to decreased employment opportunities os increased unemployment, increasing poverty Increased vacant and derelict buildings may be dangerous and deter investment Reduced need for high rise, high density buildings leading to clearance and replacements Increased industrial and residential clearance for communication networks Increased opportunity for environmental improvement of derelict land for recreation

Question 50

Suburbs consequences of suburbanisation

Answer 50

Increasing price of land Increasing pressure on green belt Increase in commuters so pollution and congestion Increasing demand for recreational facilities Increasing demand for retailing Increasing employment opportunities in offices and shops Loss of character/community places of locals

Question 51

City consequences of suburbanisation

Answer 51

Greater polarisation Increasing employment decentralisation Increase in outer city traffic Increase in air pollution Increase in size of city

Question 52

Recent changes in suburbs

Answer 52

Increasing conversion of single unit dwellings to multiple unit dwellings Infilling of vacant land and construction of smaller dwellings and flats. Accelerated by government demands for new homes to be constructed on brownfield sites Outward expansion of the suburban fringe into the green belt

Question 53

Are all suburbs the same?

Answer 53

All are mainly residential and middle/skilled working class SInce the 19th century, they have grown in phases reflecting the profitability of houses. When land prices fall, plot sizes rise and housing densities rise. Non-residential facilities form fringe belts Houses also influenced by transport

Question 54

Rural urban continuum

Answer 54

The gradual change from highly urban, commercial land users in a CBD through residential inner and outer suburbs to mixed urban/rural landscape on the urban fringe and beyond to rural areas. Building and population density falls

Question 55

Urban shadow

Answer 55

An area of marginal land use surrounding suburban areas. It suggests a hard area to manage and plan with conflicts between land users

Question 56

Urban edge

Answer 56

The edge of a city. A zone of transition where urban spwral occurs

Question 57

Edge city

Answer 57

The development of new commercial centres and suburbs on rural land close to a central city. Large scale counter urbanisation and decentralisation of commerce, industry and people

Question 58

Rural urban fringe (RUF)

Answer 58

A zone of expansion, growth and change where rural and recreational land use is increasingly urbanised by new housing, road building, retail parks and industrial estates

Question 59

The planing framework

Answer 59

The 1947 Town and Country brought Planning Permission designed to control development. Local councils needed development plans showing how areas would develop. For urban areas these are unitary development plans. 1. Greenbelts: areas of open, rural or semi-rural land surrounding major urban areas. Restrict urban sprawl 2. New towns: Designed to provide new land for housing and industry beyond the greenbelt allowing growth but preventing sprawl 3. National parks: Areas of high landscape and cultural value protected from development In the 50s and 60s planning focussed on new and expanded towns and renewing the housing stock through slum clearance. By the 70s there were declining inner city areas

Question 60

Pressures on the RUF

Answer 60

Planning policy has focussed on containing urban areas to prevent sprawl while new towns and regenerating inner cities to provide new area for the industry, housing and commerce. These overlook the RUF as the gap between areas of development Many RUFs have protected areas to conserve them: -greenbelts -areas of exceptional landscape value -country parks for recreation -sites of scientific interest, nature or local conservation -wildlife corridors Gaining planning is hard. Prevents urban sprawl. Land values are low unless planning permission is granted when the value can rise

Question 61

Socio-cultural changes causing demand for RUF land

Answer 61

Demand for more recreation space Increased car ownership Increased affluence Increased number of households Fear of crime and pollution Environmental awareness Teleworking

Question 62

Economic changes causing demand for RUF land

Answer 62

Shift from rail-freight to road-freight Increasingly footloose industry roads Increasing industrial competition High urban land prices Lack of inner city space

Question 63

Strategies for the RUF

Answer 63

Urban fringe development corporation: would coordinate planning, recreation, development and environmental protection like the UDCs for regeneration of inner cities Enhanced environmental protection: extension of forest programmes. Would increase RUF recreation but all give economic opportunities ro farmer and businesses Development: Land that is underused is developed to provide housing, jobs and new infrastructure

Question 64

Land use competition

Answer 64

There is competition for how land is used in all urban areas. The intensity of it can vary from location to location and over time. Competition can be measured by land and rental values as well as planning laws and zoning

Question 65

Zoning

Answer 65

Land use zoning is restrictions on what types of buildings can be placed in certain areas of a city

Question 66

Urban redevelopment

Answer 66

This is when land in urban areas is completely cleared with new buildings and infrastructure often with a different purpose installed from scratch. Urban redevelopment happened in many cities that were heavily bombed in WWII

Question 67

Urban renewal

Answer 67

When the best parts of an urban area are maintained but others are adapted for a new usage. The maintained areas might be done so for historical or aesthetic purposes or because they are protected by law. Can maintain an area's historic character

Question 68

Urban regeneration

Answer 68

Refers to a combination of urban redevelopment and renewal in neighbouring urban areas

Question 69

A global city

Answer 69

A global city ( or power city, world city, alpha city or world centre) is a city that serves as a primary node in the global economic network The concept is from geography and urban studies based on the thesis that globalisation has created a hierarchy or geographic locations with varying degrees of influence over finance, trade and culture worldwide

Question 70

What makes a city global?

Answer 70

A high degree of urban development A large population The presence of major MNCs A significant and globalised finance sector A well developed and internationally linked transport infrastructure Local or national economic dominance High quality educational and research institutions Globally influential output of ideas, innovations or cultural products

Question 71

Causes of growth of global cities

Answer 71

Demographic trends: Significant rates of natural increase and in-migration. Large population clusters after workforce and market potential Economic development: The emergence of major manufacturing and service sectors in national and continental space and the development of transport nodes in the global trading system Cultural/social status: The cultural facilities are an element of attraction to FDI and tourism Political importance: Many are capital cities benefitting from high infrastructure investment

Question 72

Global cities index categories

Answer 72

Business activity Human capital Information exchange Cultural experience Political engagement

Question 73

Hierarchy or world cities

Answer 73

The Globalisation and World Cities (GaWC) Research Network at Loughborough University has identified global city levels. Alpha cities are subdivided into 4 categories. The GaWC recognises 4 lower levels of urban areas around the world (beta and gamma). The results are based upon the office networks of 175 advanced producer service firms in 256 cities in 2008

Question 74

Saskia Sassen

Answer 74

Global cities were described by Saskia Sassen in 1991 as ones that play a major role in global affairs in terms of politics, economics and culture. The number of global cities has significantly increased as globalisation has deepened

Question 75

Functional zonation

Answer 75

Each individual city is unique and the processes in them are complex. The patterns of urban forms led to the creation of many models

Question 76

The concentric zone model

Answer 76

Published in 1925 based on American Mid Western Cities. The city would form concentric zones. The concepts were drawn from ecology with the physical expansion of the city by invasion and succession with each zone expanding at the expense of the next. Business activity in the CBD. Surrounding the CBD was the zone in transition where older private houses were subdivided into flats or offices. There was cheap, low quality rented accomodation which was good for newcomers. In migrants grouped in ethnic ghettos but as they assimilated, members would move out to zones of better housing. After the transition zone was the 'working men's homes' with some of the oldest housing. The residential zone as next occupied by the middle clase with newer and larger houses. The commuters zone extended beyond the built up area

Question 77

What is the concentric zone model based on

Answer 77

A uniform land surface Free competition for space Universal access to a single centred city In migration to the city with development out from the city core

Question 78

Bid rent theory

Answer 78

Also has a concentric formation determined by the ability of land uses to pay high costs of a central location. High accessibility of central land which is in short supply causes competition. The land use willing and able to bid the most will gain the most central location. The most peripheral location is for the use that bid the least. With poor personal mobility, low income groups prefer inner locations. Land cost is overcome by living in high densities. The more affluent who want a large house and garden seek cheaper land in low density suburbs. Being highly mobile, the trade of space against CBD accessibility

Question 79

Hoyts sector model

Answer 79

Based on 142 US cities. He put the CBD in the same place as Burgess for the same reason of accessibility. Once there were variations in land use close to the centre, they persisted as the city expanded. High income housing developed where there were physical or social attractions and low income housing in unfavourable locations. Transport routes influenced sectoral growth especially in industry. As new land was needed by each sector, it was developed at the periphery. Medium and high class housing near the centre was subject to suburban relocation by residents leading to deterioration, subdivision and occupation by low income

Question 80

Multiple nuclei model

Answer 80

Harris and Ullman argues that urban land use doesn't develop around a single centre but many nuclei. Some may be long established and incorporated by urban expansion and some like industrial estates are newer. Similar activities group while some land uses repel. Middle and high income house buyers can afford to avoid living in industrial areas. Rapid urban expansion may result in activities being dispersed to new nuclei

Question 81

British urban land use model

Answer 81

Mann based a British City on Burgess and Hoyt. His outcome was a compromise of the 2 for Sheffield, Nottingham and Huddersfield. The 4 residential sectors from middle to low working class, he noticed the influence of prevailing wind on the location of industry and expensive housing. He allowed for local authority house building especially in the periphery and for commuter villages

Question 82

Modern North American city model

Answer 82

Clark also incorporated Burgess and Hoyt. The CBD is subdivided into a core and frame. Outside the lower income inner city are 3 suburban rings divided into lower middle, middle and high income. Commercial hierarchy elements are included along with industrial and office parks. Decentralisation is a key element. The central city boundary shows the legal limits of the main city that used to contain the whole urban area. In the 20th century the city sprawled beyond legal limits. The Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area also includes rural sections of countries that form the wider urban area

Question 83

Latin American city model

Answer 83

Central areas with charged from the colonial period show CBD characteristics. Development of a commercial spine out from the CBD is enveloped by a residential sector. Tendency for industries with a need for urban services to be near the centre. The model includes a zone of maturity with a full range of services with noth older traditional housing and recent residential development. Traditional housing cone occupied by high incomes who now live in the leite sector has undergone subdivision and deterioration. A lot of recent housing is self built of permanent materials and reasonably quality. A zone of in situ accretion with a variety of house types and quality but is in the process of extension or improvement. Urban services are patchy with only the main streets having a good surface. Government housing projects are featured. A zone of squatter settlements are the residence of most in migrants. Services are sparse. Most housing is shanty's made of wood, oil cans, polyethene and others

Question 84

Urban density gradients

Answer 84

For most cities density falls with increasing distance from the centre. HICs: -initial rise and later decline in density of the central area -outward spread of population and therefore reduction in density gradient LICs/MICs -continuing increase in central area density -maintenance of stable density gradients as the urban area expands In LICs/MICs personal mobility and transport infrastructure operate at a lower level. Central areas have an important residential function. Results in a more compact urban area and transport restricts urban sprawl. Informal settlement in outer areas causes greater suburban gradient. Where car ownership is increasing, significant sprawl is occuring

Question 85

General factors affecting the location of urban activities - manufacturing

Answer 85

Market forces: The demand and supply of land dictates its price and therefore what can afford to be built there Government decisions: Planners can overrule market forces for the public good. This allocates land for housing, recreation, schools etc that may have been bought by other activities. Governments can use their power to force the sale of land for a certain purpose

Question 86

History of manufacturing location

Answer 86

In Victorian times cities were compact. Manufacturing was concentrated in inner city. Workers needed to live close to factories before cars existed so terraced housing. Disadvantages of factories in inner cities began to outweigh advantages

Question 87

Changes to manufacturing

Answer 87

Movement to suburbs began in some cities Deindustrialisation (movement of manufacturing from HICs to MICs/LICs led to factories shutting down in HICs) Post-industrial city (used to be reliant on manufacturing but now has very little)

Question 88

Constrained location theory

Answer 88

Industrial buildings of 19th and 20th century mainly multi-storey are unsuitable for modern manufacturing which prefers single-storey. Intensive nature of land use results in sites being hemmed in by outer land users preventing on site expansion. Size of most sites is limited by historical choice and deemed too small by modern standards making change to use of housing, recreation etc likely. Old sites can't hold industrial estates, the preferred industrial location in most local authority areas. With larger sites, lack of environmental regulation in early times has caused great contamination so reclamation is costly. High competition of urban land has pushed up prices to prohibitive levels

Question 89

Other factors in demise of inner city manufacturing

Answer 89

Slum clearance schemes in 50/60/70s often also included factories Regional economic policies incentivised factories to relocate out of inner city Many factories in companies in the inner city worked together and connected through supply chains. Once some businesses moved out, connections were broken to remaining has less incentive to stay

Question 90

Suburban manufacturing and rural-urban fringe

Answer 90

Suburbanisation:Workers had preferred to live away from city centres so labour supply was stronger away from inner city Customers:Greater % of customers were also living in suburbs or rural areas Transport links:Motorway, ring road and high speed rail investment has made suburban areas more accessible. Less congestion Space:Greenfield sites allowed larger factories with space for offices and parking Land cost: Land/rent in suburbs was cheaper than inner city, reduing start up costs Quality of life:Workers have a higher quality of life living on the edge of cities. There are more recreational opportunities, less pollution, traffic, land rent, closer to wildlife, greenery, countryside etc

Question 91

Chaning face of retail

Answer 91

Location and characteristics of retail have changed over the last few decades. The CBD has changed but other urban areas have also witnessed the development of certain features

Question 92

Suburban CBDs

Answer 92

As urban areas increase in population size and urban sprawl occurs, more people find themselves at a considerable distance from the CBD. Suburban retail and business centres develop to satisfy this demand

Question 93

Retail parks

Answer 93

Characterised by retail units needing large floor space and a large par park. They are located along key arterial and ring roads

Question 94

Urban superstores

Answer 94

Single-owner retail units (large supermarkets) are located at points of high accessibility and consumer demand

Question 95

Out of town shopping centres

Answer 95

Large indoor shopping centres are at the edge of cities or in rural areas beyond

Question 96

Internet shopping and home delivery

Answer 96

Rapidly increasing in popularity and threaten the future existence of certain types of shops

Question 97

Other urban services - health

Answer 97

Generally smaller local hospitals have been shut down in favour of larger ones. Increasingly on the outskirts of cities. There are fewer so journey times for some people to hospital have increased significantly

Question 98

Other urban services - education

Answer 98

Schools for primary or younger students have stayed small and local but high and secondary schools have merged creating fewer, larger schools. Adds to journey times and causes more traffic congestion

Question 99

Other urban services - sport

Answer 99

The redevelopment of sport stadia often results in a move from their traditional inner city homes to suburban or edge of city locations with more space for facilities and better transport links

Question 100

Rural-urban fringe

Answer 100

The transition zone between the city and its suburbs and the countryside. Certain types of land use are characteristic of this zone: garden centres, country parks, riding stables, golf courses, sewage, airports are all common and are neither truly urban or truly rural uses but are influenced by both

Question 101

The importance of key workers

Answer 101

Cities need key workers to function Key workers have moderate wages and may not be able to afford to live in many urban centres Local governments may intervene to help key workers live in certain areas to maintain service provision for the whole community Teachers Registered nurses Social workers Police Ambulance and paramedics

Question 102

Advantages of out of town shopping centres

Answer 102

Individual shops can offer a greater range of goods when in larger shops New developments are attractive On the edge of town reduces environmental pressure on city cntres Space so shops aren't crmaped Large so can sell a lot of goods at lower prices New jobs created short and long term Accessible by car Free parking On the edge of town so land price is lower and cost of development is down

Question 103

Disadvantages of out of town shopping centres

Answer 103

Loss of personal touch Small/family businesses can't compete with MNCs Destroy habitats Increase in impermeable surfaces may cause more flooding and decrease water quality May take trade away from city centres and cause a fall in CBD sales Destroy lots of undeveloped greenfield sites Congestion Only help those with cars Lead to pollution and environmental problems Many jobs created are unskilled

Question 104

Characteristics of a CBD

Answer 104

Traffic restrictions Land has very high land value due to lack of space and competition for land Little to no residential because so expensive, maybe flats above shops Old core with narrow streets or historical core Historical buildings Government buildgins Very accessible with major rail and road routes Banks, buildings societies, estate agents where they can get more customers Entertainment like restaurants and clubs Covered shopping centres Many national chain stores since they can afford the rent

Question 105

CBD core and frame model

Answer 105

Inner core: Department stores, specialist shops, high rise offices, commercial offices, banks Outer core: Theatres/cinemas, offices, public admin, specialist shops Frame: Eduction, small shops, transport terminals, car parking, warehouses, derelict land Discard zone: Abandonment/derelict land Assimilation zone: Invasion of residential and conversion areas

Question 106

Vertical zoning

Answer 106

Applies almost exclusively to the CBD. Due to high land value, buildings are taller so they maximise land use. There is zoning upwards through buildings like the core frame model Basements: car park and light semi-industrial activities like industrial laundries. Don't require natural light and aren't aimed at retail customers Ground floor: High volume shops like convenience stores. Need to be highly visible to customers at street level and the best advertising is a large shop flat 1st floors: Shops and services that want to be on ground flood but can't compete Upper floors: Services like offices. Need to be easily accessible in the CBD but don't need a visible presence at ground level and need more space than the ground floor provides

Question 107

Factors influencing CBD decline

Answer 107

Rise in car ownership leads to more personal mobility and rise of leisure shopping Planning policies encourage urban expansion and provide developments out of town City councils who want to attract new industry/investment offer greenfield sites fro development Companies find outer location cheaper and near affluent customers and staff in green suburbs Investors/businesses attracted by peripheral sites which have good access, environments and low costs Cost and upkeep of CBD development is high Investment in city centres is mostly prestige projects which lack coordination Congestion means CBD accessibility is reduced Progressive suburbanisation leads to urban sprawl, edge cities are a long way from centres City centres perceived as dirty, unsafe have an ageing environments and poor infrastructure

Question 108

General changes in CBD

Answer 108

Pedestrianised zones Indoor shopping centres Environmental improvements Greater public transport coordination Ring roads around CBD with multi-storey parking

Question 109

Specific CBD changes

Answer 109

Some areas of the CBD may expand into the inner city (assimilation) Other areas may go into decline (discard) CBDs are in competition with other areas and need upgrading to be popular with customers Major CBD changes may be part of wider urban redevelopment schemes Redevelopment of areas beyond CBD could cause multiple nuclei competing against or enhancing the historic city centre

Question 110

Residential segregation

Answer 110

Refers to the general spatial separation of 2 or more social groups in a specified geographical area like a municipality, county or metropolitan area

Question 111

Segregation

Answer 111

Residential segregation is common in all cities Main causes are income and race/ethnicity The process are the operation of the housing market, planning, culture and the influence of family or friends

Question 112

Housing markets

Answer 112

The supply of and demand for houses usually in a particular country or region. A key element is the average and trend in house prices

Question 113

Housing markets and lending: getting a mortgage

Answer 113

If it is hard for certain people to get a mortgage they may struggle to buy homes in nicer areas. Bigger problem in the past when banks unfairly denied loans caused on race and where people wanted to buy

Question 114

Housing markets and lending: affording housing

Answer 114

In expensive areas people with lower incomes can't afford to live there. They end up in cheaper areas with less resources keeping income groups apart

Question 115

Housing markets and lending: government rules

Answer 115

Laws try to stop housing discrimination. They make sure everyone has a far chance to buy a home in a good area

Question 116

Housing markets and lending: investment and building

Answer 116

Developers build new homes where they will make the most money. Can reinforce segregation by focusing on wealthier areas

Question 117

Housing markets and lending: schools and services

Answer 117

Area of living affects school attended and access to services. Unequal access worsens segregation

Question 118

Housing markets and lending: neighborhoods

Answer 118

Over time, they stay mostly 1 race or group because of past discrimination which is hard to change

Question 119

Housing supply and the poor

Answer 119

When housing supply fails to match demand, competition is high and house prices rise. Makes it harder to the poorest to buy a house and makes areas inaccessible to them. The poor are forced out of cities into the urban periphery

Question 120

Social housing

Answer 120

Exists to help people who can't afford to rent or buy a house on the open market and is usually built with the support of government funding. The amount and location of this can impact social segregation. Most planners aim for a mix of social and non-social housing

Question 121

Urban ghettos

Answer 121

A ghetto is a part of a city in which members of a minority group are concentrated due to political, social, legal, religious, environmental or economic pressure. Known for being more impoverished than other areas of the city

Question 122

Non-economic factors in residential segregation

Answer 122

The culture and history of an area can exaggerate residential segregation. People want to feel like they belong to an area and are welcome. Can be difficult for planners or politicians to change

Question 123

The urban mosaic model

Answer 123

Income: people on high incomes have a wide choice of where to live. Housing is important in people lives so tend to live in the best houses/locations they can afford. People on low incomes have limited choice for houses and locations Ethnicity: people from certain ethnic groups tend to cluster in areas called ethnic villages Age: most people move during their lives. Location and type of property is affected by age and family size. Types of property are in different areas so people move as the life cycle progresses

Question 124

Indicators of segregation

Answer 124

Households with no car or van: impacts personal mobility which impacts quality of life Households in owner occupied accommodation: most people buy if they can. Increase in owner occupation recently due to this Unemployment rate

Question 125

Urban renaissance

Answer 125

Creating a high quality of life in urban areas More sustainable living by putting people close to services and facilities, reducing traffic and minimising the need to travel buy car Maintaining and creating attractive living environemnts Social wellbeing, housing and jobs for all sectors of the community that need them Having a good transport system, promoting good urban design and meeting community needs