Vocabulary (Chapter 5-6)

Question 1

Reinforcement

Answer 1

Process or procedure where a reinforcer (a consequence of behavior) increases operant behavior above its baseline level.
Process where a stimulus is presented after a behavior which results in an increase in future frequency of behavior above the baseline level.

Question 2

Positive Reinforcement

Answer 2

Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior.
Ex: Child gets a sticker for doing homework. (The child will do more homework in the future)

Question 3

Negative Reinforcement

Answer 3

Remove an aversive stimulus to increase behavior.
Ex: Student turns in homework to avoid parents nagging. Putting on sunglasses to stop the sun from hurting your eyes.

Question 4

Antecedent

Answer 4

Observable stimulus before the behavior occurs. This is the trigger or the cue.

Question 5

Consequence

Answer 5

Observable stimulus change that happens after behavior occurs. Influences whether the behavior increases or decreases in the future.

Question 6

Behavior

Answer 6

Individual living organism’s activity, private or public, which may be influenced by internal or external stimulation. This is the observable action performed by the individual.

Question 7

Response-Consequence Contingency

Answer 7

Describes the causal (IF > THEN) relation between an operant behavior and its consequences. Refers to the predictable relationship between a specific behavior and a specific outcome.

Question 8

Learning Response-Consequence Contingencies

Answer 8

The individual performs a behavior. The consequence follows, and the person associates the behavior with the outcome over time. If the result is reinforced, the behavior increases; if the result is negative, then the behavior decreases. This learning happens through repetition.

Question 9

Noncontingent Consequences

Answer 9

Occur after a response, but not because the response caused them to happen. They are outcomes or events that happen even without a specific behavior.
- Ex: Parent gives a child snacks daily regardless of how the child behaves.

Question 10

Superstitious Behaviors

Answer 10

Occurs when the individual behaves as though a response-consequence contingency exists when the relation between response and consequence is noncontingent. These arise when a person incorrectly associates a noncontingent consequence with their behavior.

Question 11

Reinforcer

Answer 11

Consequence that increases operant behavior above its baseline level. This is defined by its effect on behavior.

Question 12

Rewards

Answer 12

Beneficial consequences that we think function as reinforcers, but don’t know if they will. These are based on intent, not on outcome. These may or may not change behavior and until they change behavior these can only be viewed as rewards.
Consequences that we think will function as a reinforcer.

Question 13

Response Variability

Answer 13

Differences or changes in how an individual responds to a situation.

Question 14

Exploration

Answer 14

When individuals are exposed to new contingencies of reinforcement, they tend to respond more variably by exploring in a trial-and-error way. Trying new or different behaviors to find what leads to reinforcement. This is high in response variability.

Question 15

Exploitation

Answer 15

This happens when an individual repeats a behavior already known to result in reinforcement. These happen when efficient habits are formed, which are low in response variability.

Question 16

Operant Behavior

Answer 16

Behavior that is influenced by antecedents (observable stimulus present before the behavior occurs) and consequences events (observable stimulus change that happens after behavior occurs). Voluntary and shaped by reinforcement or punishment.

Question 17

Positive Reinforcement (SR+)

Answer 17

Add something good.
Presentation of a consequence or the effect of which is to increase operant behavior above its no-reinforcer baseline level.

Question 18

Reinforcement

Answer 18

Describes the process. Process or procedure that increases in operant behavior above its baseline level.

Question 19

Reinforcer

Answer 19

Describes the consequence. Consequence that increases operant behavior above its baseline level.

Question 20

Negative Reinforcement (SRE- and SRA-)

Answer 20

Remove something bad.
Remove an aversive stimulus. Negative isn’t a punishment and instead refers to removing a stimulus.

Question 21

Negative Reinforcement (Escape) (SRE-)

Answer 21

Consequent removal or reduction of a stimulus increases operant behavior above its no-reinforcer baseline level. The consequence of the behavior is the removal or reduction of stimulus. Behavior that removes or stops an ongoing aversive stimulus.
Escape category always involves complete or partial escape from a stimulus.
Ex: Child is doing homework and hears loud, annoying music from the next room. (Closing the door to block the noise, and thus the noise stops)

Question 22

Negative Reinforcement (Avoidance) (SRA-)

Answer 22

Consequent prevention of stimulus changes, the effect of which is to increase operant behavior above its no-reinforcer baseline level. Behavior that prevents an aversive stimulus before it starts.
Ex: The same child knows that music is usually loud at 4 pm and wants to avoid it while studying. (The child closes the door before 4 pm, preventing the aversive stimulus from occurring)

Question 23

Warning Stimulus

Answer 23

Precedes the operant response. Signals the aversive stimulus is imminent. Second, the operant response prevents the aversive stimulus change from happening.

Question 24

Positive Reinforcement Example

Answer 24

A teacher gives a student a sticker for completing their work. Behavior: The student completes work. Consequence: The teacher provides a sticker (pleasant stimulus). Conclusion: It increases the likelihood of completing the behavior again.

Question 25

Negative Reinforcement (Escape) Example

Answer 25

A person is outside on a hot day and starts sweating. Aversive Stimulus: Heat and sweating are happening. Behavior: The person goes inside air-conditioning. Consequence: Discomfort stops. Conclusion: A person is more likely to go indoors when hot.

Question 26

Negative Reinforcement (Avoidance) Example

Answer 26

Students know that their teacher gives a pop quiz when students come in late. Aversive Stimulus: Pop quiz. Behavior: Student arrives on time for class. Consequence: Quiz is avoided. Conclusion: Students continue arriving on time.

Question 27

Three Reasons for Distinguishing Between Positive and Negative Reinforcement

Answer 27

Reason 1 (Heuristics) Reason 2 (Loss Aversion) Reason 3 (Preference for Positive Reinforcement)

Question 28

Reason 1 (Heuristics)

Answer 28

Positively influence behavior through reinforcement, it is important to remember all your options.

Question 29

Reason 2 (Loss Aversion)

Answer 29

Tendency for loss prevention (SRA+) to influence behavior more than presentation of the same stimulus (SR+).

Question 30

Reason 3 (Preference for Positive Reinforcement)

Answer 30

For this reinforcement-based intervention would you rather use a positive-reinforcement contingency (loosely speaking, getting something you want when you succeed) or a negative reinforcement contingency (avoiding something aversive when you succeed).

Question 31

Objections to Reinforcement 1. 2. 3.

Answer 31

Intrinsic Motivation Performance-Inhibiting Properties of Reinforcement Cheating

Question 32

Intrinsic Motivation

Answer 32

Natural drive to engage in a behavior because it fosters a sense of competence. Reinforcement permanently decreases intrinsic motivation for a behavior.

Question 33

Extrinsic Motivation

Answer 33

Artificially arranged reinforcers. Don’t decrease intrinsic motivation to engage in behavior. When the probability of a behavior is very low (children eating vegetables). Extrinsic rewards can momentarily reduce intrinsically motivated behavior.

Question 34

Performance-Inhibiting Properties of Reinforcement

Answer 34

Many are concerned that SR+ (Positive reinforcement) can inhibit performance. Positive reinforcement is that reinforcement contingencies can inhibit performances. Two Forms: Reduced Creativity and Choking Under Pressure

Question 35

Reduced Creativity o Amabile (1996)

Answer 35

Asked professional artists to submit several of their paintings that were either commissioned (the buyer told the artist what to paint) or noncommissioned (artist was unpaid and they painted whatever they wanted).

Question 36

Reduced Creativity o Glover and Gary (1976)

Answer 36

Included creativity in a positive reinforcement contingency applied to young writers. When social reinforcers could be obtained for writing non-repetitive, elaborate, and original words these components of creative writing increased.

Question 37

Cheating

Answer 37

If cheating can produce SR+ more easily than engaging in the desired behavior people will succumb to the temptation.

Question 38

Two Theories of Reinforcement 1. Response-Strengthening Theory 2. Information Theory

Answer 38

1. Response-Strengthening Theory: Reinforcement strengthens behaviors, making them more likely even without understanding why they work. 2. Information Theory: Reinforcers increase operant behavior above a baseline level but disagrees about how it happens. Reinforcers provide information, allowing the individual to predict when or where subsequent reinforcers are obtained.

Question 39

Contingent Relation

Answer 39

Between response and consequence. Consequence was on there was a contingent relation between response and consequence. IF the behavior occurred > THEN the consequence followed. When the consequence was OFF there was no response-consequence contingent relation.

Question 40

Two-Term Contingency

Answer 40

When behavior is influenced by a response-consequence contingency, the individual has learned how to operate an aspect of their environment. Operant behavior operates the environment by producing consequences.

Question 41

Contingent Consequences

Answer 41

Occur when an IF > THEN relation exists between response and consequence.

Question 42

Noncontingent Consequence

Answer 42

Occurs after a response but not because the response caused it to occur. No casual relation between response and consequence the relation between them is noncontingent.

Question 43

Contingency Management

Answer 43

Individuals diagnosed with a substance-use disorder and participates in contingency management treatment are informed of a new causal relation between drug abstinence (behavior) and a reward (consequence). IF you abstain from using drugs for the next two days > THEN you will earn a modest reward.

Question 44

Edward L. Thorndike

Answer 44

First scientist to demonstrate that reinforcers increase the probability of behavior. Box arranged a response-consequence contingency (IF the cat placed in the box pulled a string, connected through a series of pulleys to the door latch > THEN the door would open. The cat didn’t know how the box worked, so it tried many unsuccessful behaviors (trying to squeeze through the bars) before chancing upon an escape route. Cat pulled the string and opened the door.)

Question 45

Reinforcement Contingency

Answer 45

Required that the cat pull the string to open the door. Had the cat never done this, it would never have obtained the reinforcer. If a reinforcer never occurs, it cannot increase behavior.

Question 46

Punishers

Answer 46

Decrease the probability of your behavior and these aren’t reinforcers either.

Question 47

Consolvo and her colleagues (2008)

Answer 47

If the information provided by personal activity monitors functions as a reinforcer for physical activity. Participants whose monitors displayed the number of steps taken were 30% more active than participants whose smartphone recorded steps but wouldn’t display this information.

Question 48

Solomon and Wynne (1953)

Answer 48

Put dogs in a two-compartment box. They could escape shock on one side by jumping to another. Demonstrated traumatic avoidance learning. The learned association between the cue and avoidance response was strong and difficult to break.

Question 49

Olds and Milner (1954)

Answer 49

Each rat was placed in an operant-conditioning chamber in which it could press a lever to send a brief electrical pulse to its own brain. The consequence of pressing the lever was a stimulus presentation, the electric pulse to the brain. If the pulse increases behavior above its baseline then we can conclude that if functions as a positive reinforcer.

Question 50

Two-Factor Theory of Avoidance

Answer 50

Avoidance responses produce fear reduction, which is a consequence. The warning stimulus evokes fear. The avoidance response terminates the fear. Relies on Pavlovian and operant conditioning.

Question 51

One-Factor Theory of Avoidance

Answer 51

Operant conditioning can explain the process. Preventing the stimulus is the consequence. In these experiments, rats reliably pressed the lever to delay shocks, even though doing so either didn’t decrease or actually increased the number of shocks received per session. Momentarily preventing the aversive event is the consequence that maintains SRA+ behavior.

Question 52

Systematic Behavior-Change Programs

Answer 52

Based in large part on positive reinforcement have helped thousands of children to acquire social and daily living skills that allow them to live with dignity. These include increasing exercise and adherence to a healthy diet, practicing safe sexual behaviors, and reducing cigarette smoking and prescription drug abuse.

Question 53

Organizational Behavior Management

Answer 53

Systematic application of positive reinforcement in workplace settings. Behavior analysts trained in OBM consult with companies to integrate positive reinforcement into the workplace.