12 Congress Flashcards
(453 cards)
1
Q
Where is Congress based?
A
The Capitol on Capitol Hill in Washington DC
2
Q
Laws made in Congress apply…
A
To all states
3
Q
What were Congressional approval ratings in summer 2020?
A
18%
4
Q
What was approval of Congress’ bipartisan coronavirus relief bill?
A
77%
5
Q
How many representatives are there?
A
435
6
Q
What constituency do representatives represent?
A
A congressional district
7
Q
How many Senators are there for each state?
A
2
8
Q
What was the New Jersey Plan?
A
The small states plan
Legislature with equal number of seats for all states
Legislature with equal number of seats for all states
9
Q
What was the Virginia Plan?
A
The large states plan
Legislature with proportional number of seats
Legislature with proportional number of seats
10
Q
What was the Great Compromise?
A
Conneticut Compromise 1787
Bicameral legislature with proportional (representative) and fixed (Senate)
Bicameral legislature with proportional (representative) and fixed (Senate)
11
Q
3 roles of Congress
A
- Pass legislation
- Represent the people
- Oversee the executive
12
Q
Who is the President of the Senate?
A
The Vice President
13
Q
3 major roles within the Senate?
A
- Senate President (VP)
- Senate Majority Leader
- Senate Minority Leader
14
Q
How many Representatives does the largest state (California) have?
A
52
15
Q
What are ‘midterms’?
A
Elections to Congress not in Presidential election years
16
Q
3 major roles within the House?
A
- Speaker
- House Majority Leader
- House Minority Leader
17
Q
3 requirements to be a Representative
A
- 25 years or older
- Live in the state you represent
- 7 years of citizenship
18
Q
3 requirements to be a Senator?
A
- 30 years or older
- 9 years of citizenship
- Live in the state you represent
19
Q
Why does the Representatives actually have 441 members? What is special about the six?
A
6 non-voting members
They cannot vote
They cannot vote
20
Q
The 6 non-voting members represent…
A
US territories such as Puerto Rico or Guam
21
Q
What can non-voting members do?
A
- Sit on committees
- Introduce legislation
22
Q
3 categories we can put Congressional powers into?
A
- Exclusive powers of the Senate
- Exclusive powers of the House
- Concurrent powers
23
Q
5 powers given to both chambers
A
- Both need 2/3 to overturn a Presidential veto
- Both can amend the Constitution via a 2/3 vote
- Both have the power to declare war (shared)
- Both chambers have the power to determine their own rules and ensure discipline
- Both chambers can expel members following a 2/3 vote
24
Q
3 exclusive powers of the House?
A
- Power of the purse
- Power to elect the President when electoral college fails
- Power to impeach
25
When can the House have a vote to decide the President?
If no one gets 270
26
5 exclusive powers of the Senate?
1. Ratify treaties with a 2/3 vote
2. Confirm executive appointments
3. Elects the Vice President when 270 threshold is not crossed
4. Try an impeachment
5. Filibuster
27
Is the filibuster in the Constitution?
No, it is a Senate rule
28
How does a filibuster end?
A cloture motion of 3/5 of Senators
29
How long was the longest ever filibuster? Why?
24 hours and 18 minutes
1957 Civil Rights Act
He was not successful (Strom Thurmond)
BUT THE LONGEST SPEECH WAS IN 2025 WHEN CORY BOOKER SPOKE FOR MORE THAN 25 HOURS ON THE 31ST MARCH - 1ST APRIL
30
3 types of Congressional powers
1. Concurrent (shared) powers
2. Exclusive powers of the House
3. Exclusive powers of the Senate
31
3 powers given to both chambers
1. Impeachment (delegated between houses)
2. Amend the constitution via 2/3 vote
3. Determine their own rules and expel a member with a 2/3 vote
32
Role of House during impeachment?
Launch the investigation and impeach via simple majority vote
33
Impeachment quote?
Can impeach for 'high crimes and misdemeanours'
34
Article 1, Section 3
Impeachment process
35
Cloture motion required votes?
3/5
36
What gives Congress the power to veto?
Article 2
37
How many voting members of the House?
435
38
How to declare war?
2/3 vote in both houses
39
2 reasons to think Congress is popular? But the caveat
1. 77% approved the stimulus package produced in COVID-19
2. Congresspeople enjoy re-election rates in excess of 90%
18% approval rating amongst the American public
## Footnote
18% approval rating amongst the American public
40
How did the US Constitution create pork-barreling?
2 year election frequency means representatives are always campaigning
41
How is ordinary public legislation passed by Congress?
Simple majority in both houses and Presidential signature
42
3 forms of Congressional Oversight
1. Can launch investigations into the executive through Congressional committees
2. Must approve federal budgets (power of the purse)
3. Checking appointments
43
2 areas where Senatorial approval of appointments is required?
1. Federal judiciary
2. Some executive positions
44
First stage in the Congressional legislative process?
A draft bill in either the House or Senate is sent to the relevant standing committee
45
What is a standing committee in the US?
A permanent committee
46
Why is the committee stage the most important stage of the legislative process?
1. Most bills fail here to intense demand (pigeon-holing)
2. Committee has immense power including amendments and deciding whether to release the bill to the floor
47
When a bill is released from the committee stage to the floor...
Rules are set about whether amendments can be made, and following the debate there is then a vote.
48
Senate President a.k.a.
VP
49
Senate composition (2025)
2 Independents
53 Republicans
45 Democrats
50
Are there term limits in either the House or the Senate? Example of this being exploited?
No
John Dingell spent 59 years and 21 days as both a Representative before his retirement.
## Footnote
John Dingell spent 59 years and 21 days as both a Representative before his retirement.
51
How many non-voting members of the House?
6
52
How is the Senate unrepresentative of US territories?
No representation
53
Where does the veto override power come from?
Article 2
54
When has the House elected the President?
1800
1824
55
True or false - the House elects the President if there is an ECV tie?
Not necessarily true. Only when more than 50% of votes not allocated
56
Majority needed for impeachment?
2/3
57
How many Senators to cloture?
3/5 (60)
58
Example of a Presidential candidate handicapped by being born outside the US?
Ted Cruz was born in Alberta
59
Is there evidence that the Founders sought to make one House of Congress superior to another in the framing of the Constitution?
Not really - whilst House has more enumerated powers, its power is checked by Senate
60
Senate at the time of your exam?
GOP majority (53)
61
4 powers of the non-voting members?
1. Sit on House committees
2. Introduce legislation and resolutions
3. Participate in the floor debate
4. Limited voting rights at times
62
When were non-voting members given voting rights and what are they?
Democrats 1993
Revoked by GOP in 1995
Instated in 2007 by Dems
Revoked in 2011 by GOP
Instated in 2019 and remains so (Dems)
## Footnote
Could vote on the committee of the whole
63
What is the Committee of the Whole?
A faster form of House debate where speeches are shorter, quorum is lower and no final votes are held. Usually used to debate amendments
64
What is quorum?
Minimum members present for something to happen
65
What is the residency requirement?
Candidates for both houses must live in the state or district they wish to represent
66
Is the Senate just a check on the House?
No, it enhances federalism and acts as a deliberative body which is more immune from rapid shifts in public opinion
67
Who argued that the main purpose of the Senate was to be a check on the House?
James Madison - a place for 'cool and deliberate' debate, a safeguard against 'impulse and passion'
68
Who sets rules for both Houses?
Themselves (Article 1)
69
What is in Article 1 Section 5?
Each house sets its own rules and may expel members
70
Why might it be fair to say the House is actually stronger in impeachment?
All impeachment cases must begin in the House
71
What is the main determinant of congressional voting behaviour? Evidence?
Party affiliation
More than 90% of votes party line, compared to around 60% in the early 1970s (Forbes)
## Footnote
More than 90% of votes party line, compared to around 60% in the early 1970s (Forbes)
72
Evidence of policy that changed hands with the party in control of Congress, showing partisanship?
Non-voting member voting rights on Committee of the Whole votes
Instated 1993, revoked 1995, re-instated 2007, revoked 2011 and then reinstated 2019
All revocations were Republican, all reinstatements Democrat
## Footnote
Instated 1993, revoked 1995, re-instated 2007, revoked 2011 and then reinstated 2019
All revocations were Republican, all reinstatements Democrat
73
Example of a time when party loyalty actually wasn't the most important?
Joe Liebermann - independent, former Dem, from Connecticut, voted against the ACA, noting the public option
74
Example of a time when party loyalty trumped individual judgement?
Rep Walter Jones from NC, voted in favour of Tax Cuts and Jobs Act 2017, which was against his principles because it favoured the rich and got the deficit up. But he was a Republican, so had to do it
75
Example of a time when mandate theory hurt a Congressperson? Eval?
Kathy Dahlkemper, D-PA - voted for ACA but represented a strong anti-ACA district. Lost her 2010 re-election bid to Mike Kelly
Was a competitive district anyway
## Footnote
Was a competitive district anyway
76
What was the 2016 presidential election turnout?
58.1%
77
What kind of lobbying involved holding parties to help decision-makers and interest groups network?
Indirect lobbying
78
How does the power of the Lords and the Senate over legislation differ?
Lords can only delay, but not halt legislation.
Senate can amend budget bills
## Footnote
Senate can amend budget bills
79
3 functions of Congress, normatively outlined
1. Representative
2. Legislative
3. Oversight
80
When are Congressional elections held?
The first Tuesday after the first Monday in November
81
When are Representatives elected?
Every 2 years
82
When are Senators elected?
Every 6 years, 1/3 at a time
83
How does the Constitution ensure Senators are elected every 6 years?
They are broken up into 3 classes
84
Which Senate Class was elected in 2018, 2020, and 2022?
1, 2 and 3
85
Which Senate class has one more Senator than the others?
Class 3
86
What is an example that shows Congressional representation might be flawed?
Elections have lower turnout, they are much higher in years of presidential elections
36.4% in 2014 midterms
58.1% in 2016 presidential
87
What is the incumbency factor in Congress?
The tendency for politicians already in power to win re-election easier than counterparts running for the first time. 80% of incumbents are re-elected.
88
What are 3 reasons incumbents often have an easier time?
1. Donors already established
2. Can speak to achievements
3. Name recognition
89
What are 5 factors that affect voting behaviour by Congresspeople?
1. Constituency
2. Party
3. Caucuses
4. Pressure groups
5. Lobbying
90
How often does Congress vote along party lines nowadays?
90% of Congresspeople vote with their party in all issues
Affordable Care Act passed along party lines
## Footnote
Example: Affordable Care Act passed along party lines.
91
What are 2 examples of Congressional Caucuses and their purpose?
Congressional Caucuses are groups of Congresspeople with similar political objectives or goals
House Freedom Caucus - smaller government - affiliated with the Tea Party
Congressional Black Caucus - made up of exclusively African American Congresspeople
92
How does constituency influence Congressional voting behaviour?
During recesses, Congresspeople go back to their states to hold surgeries, and in DC they are directly contactable. The Representatives are elected every 2 years - they have to stay popular.
93
Give an example of pressure groups at work.
US Chamber of Commerce supported Brett Kavanaugh.
94
How do pressure groups influence campaigns and appointments?
Spending money.
95
What is a lobbyist?
Someone who is paid to campaign for a given special interest group client.
96
How much did corporations in the US spend on lobbying each year? What did this put them in front of?
$2.6 billion
Everybody else
97
Has lobbying increased in recent years?
Yes.
98
What is evidence that lobbying is effective?
2012 - Northrup Grumman spent $176 million on lobbying and in 2012 won a defence contract for NATO.
99
What are the 9 powers of Congress?
ELOWATIAO
1. Elect the President
2. Legislate
3. Oversight
4. War
5. Amend the constitution
6. Treaties
7. Impeach
8. Appointments
9. Override a presidential veto
100
What power does Congress have in the election of a President?
If the electoral college is tied, it goes to Congress. It did in 1824.
101
What power does Congress have to legislate?
It can pass laws, pending Presidential approval.
102
What are 2 examples of Congressional oversight?
1. Congress approves all budgets
2. Congressional committees allow oversight and investigation.
103
When was Congress last at war?
1941.
104
How does a declaration of war work?
Both houses must approve it.
105
Is the Constitution specific about the declaration of war?
No, Article 1 Section 8 just says that the power belongs to Congress.
106
What power does Congress have regarding treaties?
Senate must give 2/3 supermajority.
107
How does impeachment work in the US?
House votes via simple majority to impeach, Senate votes via SUPERMAJORITY to convict.
108
When will the US be majority non-white?
2045.
109
Is Congress racially representative?
No.
110
In which groups is Congress not racially representative?
Hispanic - 9% in COTUS vs 18% in US population.
111
What is evidence that Congress is not religiously representative?
88% of Congress is Christian, vs 71% of US.
112
Which other religious group is overrepresented in Congress?
6% vs 2%.
113
All the above diversity stats are from which Congress?
117th (2021-23).
114
Which is the most underrepresented religious group in Congress and evidence thereof?
Non-religious
23% in US population vs 0.2% in Congress
Only one member of Congress is not religious - Kyrsten Sinema (S-AZ)
115
What is the LGBT representation of 117COTUS vs US population?
2% of Congress LGBT, 11 openly LGBT members
4.5% in entire population
116
What is the average age of Congress vs average age of US population?
59 years vs 38 years.
117
What proportion of Congress people have a degree, vs real US?
99%, dominated by P, P or E.
35%.
118
What are 3 reasons Congress could be unrepresentative?
1. Gerrymandering
2. Male culture
3. State legislatures.
119
How has gerrymandering created disproportionate representation in Congress?
"Majority-minority" districts are gerrymandered since they often return Democratic winners - Republican lawmakers, for instance in North Carolina, have intended to return as few Democrats as possible.
120
How has the male culture of the Senate created barriers to entry for female lawmakers? Give 2 examples.
1. Up until 2009 the Senate swimming pool was male-only and was reportedly a "boys club" - male Senators would swim naked
2. Senators must be physically present to vote, making it difficult for new mothers. For instance, in 2018, Tammy Duckworth changed Senate rules to become the first Senator to have a baby whilst a Senator and then brought the baby into the chamber
121
What percentage of Congress is female?
27% (117C).
122
What is evidence that Congress is becoming more representative though?
117COTUS most racially diverse in history, lowest proportion of Christians, highest proportion of women.
123
What group symbolizes how Congress is becoming more diverse?
Democrat AOC became a congresswoman, the youngest ever in 2019. Her and three other minority congresswomen have formed the Squad, a group which alleges to further the cause of progressive politics. The Squad have since expanded.
124
What are the 6 stages of the legislative process?
1. Bill introduced
2. Committee stage
3. Timetabling
4. Debate
5. Conference
6. Executive signature.
125
How are draft bills introduced?
They are given to the relevant STANDING COMMITTEE.
126
Who makes up the standing committees?
Experts in the field.
127
How many bills do the standing committees get every session?
13,000.
128
Where do most bills fail?
Committee stage.
129
How does the committee stage work?
1. The bill is considered
2. Amendments are discussed
3. A final report is produced by the committee detailing suggested amendments.
130
How does a committee reject a bill?
They don't investigate it and don't send it to Congress.
131
How are many bills rejected at the Committee stage?
"Pigeon-holing" - they stay in the "in-tray."
132
How are committee members chosen?
The chair comes from the majority party and the membership of the committee is proportional.
What is important here is that relevant experience is rarely a consideration. WHILST SOME HIGH PROFILE EXAMPLES OF STANDING COMMITTEE MEMBERS WITH RELEVANT EXPERIENCE DO EXIST, THE PRIMARY CONSIDERATION IN THE SPEAKER'S SELECTION OF COMMITTEE MEMBERS IS VERY MUCH POLITICAL
133
Why is there a "traffic jam" at Part 3 of the legislative process?
Senate and House are very busy.
134
How does the Senate decide when a bill will be scheduled?
The Senate majority leader and the Senate minority leader meet and agree when the bills will be debated/voted on.
135
How does the House Rules Committee schedule a debate and vote and what can Representatives do if they feel this has been done unfairly?
The House Rules Committee decides when a bill will be timetabled - a majority vote of this committee then decides when the bill will be scheduled
However, the House chamber can "compel" a bill to be debated earlier via a simple majority vote
136
How does debate work in the House?
The bill is debated, and then amendments are voted yes/no. Finally there is a "bill vote" and the bill is decided on, with amendments. If there is a tie the bill fails
137
What makes Senate debate different than the House debate?
The filibuster can be used.
138
Example of a time the filibuster was used excessively?
1957 - Strom Thurmond filibustered for 24 hours and 18 minutes to (unsuccessfully) prevent the passage of the 1957 Civil Rights Act
139
When are amendments added in the Senate?
During the open-floor debate (they are voted on).
140
What happens if there is a tie in the US Senate?
The Vice President casts a tie-breaking 101st vote.
141
What happens after the debate stage, presuming amendments have been proposed by both houses?
The amended bill goes to the other house for consideration. Their superamended version goes back to the former house and vice versa until an agreement is reached
There is often a "conference" stage where the leaders of both houses get together and tweak the bill into a format they believe both houses will accept, eliminating the need for constant ping-pong between houses
142
Who does the conference stage?
A "conference committee" made up of members of the standing committee for the bill from both houses.
143
After the conference stage, what happens to the bill?
It goes to both houses to be voted on.
144
After the bill has finally been approved in one form by both houses, where does it go?
To the President to be signed.
145
What are the 3 kinds of Presidential veto?
1. Regular veto - requires 2/3 vote in both houses to overturn
2. Refuse to sign - in which case it becomes law in 10 days regardless
3. "Pocket" veto - refuse to sign a bill and then the Congressional term ends, meaning the bill is invalidated
146
What do all bills need when they are sent to a committee?
A co-signature from a bill "sponsor."
147
Who usually initiates bills in Congress?
Party leadership or committee chairs.
148
What are the two ways conference can be carried out?
1. Conference committee
2. Party leadership.
149
Example of a veto being overturned?
2016 JASTA veto overturned.
150
What are 2 examples of the legislative process working effectively?
1. 2010 ACA - landmark legislation
2. 2018 First Step Act - bipartisan support.
151
Example of Congress acting quickly and decisively?
CARES Act COVID-19 passed in a matter of days, the largest stimulus package in US history
152
What is evidence that the effectiveness of Congress is falling?
2-3% of bills become law.
Fallen from 6-7% in the 1980s.
153
Which was the least productive Congress in US history? What does this show?
112th COTUS - passed 283 bills
Divided government
154
What is evidence that COTUS struggles to pass landmark legislation?
115th COTUS (2017-19) - passed 442 bills, but nearly 1/3 were ceremonial. For instance, a bill was passed which renamed a court house (Bill 221)
155
Why is the filibuster useful?
1. Protects minority states
2. Protects minority opinion.
156
Is the filibuster used more frequently?
Yes.
157
What is evidence the filibuster is supported by Senators?
April 2017 - 61 senators (32 Republicans, 28 Democrats, 1 independent) wrote an open letter to Donald Trump in support of the filibuster
Measure to change the filibuster (January 2022) failed
158
How have committees made lawmaking less effective?
They concentrate power in a few hands and "closed rule" usage by the House Rules Committee preventing the number of amendments being high has created an undemocratic environment
159
Where must all money bills start?
House.
160
What happens in a government shutdown?
Some part of the legislative process (President, House, Senate) refuses to give their approval to a budget bill
161
What is evidence that Congress is abusing its power of the purse?
Government shutdowns becoming more long e.g. the three longest shutdowns all occurred after 1995, with the longest (35 days) occurring during the Trump presidency
162
Why are government shutdowns bad?
The Federal Government is unable to provide services because a budget hasn't been agreed - non-essential services such as food inspection or environment regulations shut down.
Unpopular too
163
How many votes to stop a filibuster?
60 votes (3/5).
164
What is pork barrel funding and how is it a flaw of Congress?
Wasting government money to win the support of members in Congress.
165
What is a famous example of pork-barrel funding?
$400 million bridge from mainland Alaska to Gravina Island, home to 50 people.
166
Has pork-barrel funding increased?
Yes
Citizens Against Government Waste think tank:
2012-2017 $3.7 billion a major decrease
However
2018-2019 up to $15 billion a year
167
How is the legislative process (debate) different between the House and the Senate?
House has controlled, curtailed time for debate. The Speaker usually only grants about 5 minutes
Senate has open debates which usually have no time limit. They also can filibuster
168
How many speeches can Senators make on a bill?
1 per day.
169
In what regard is the House more powerful than the Senate?
House can introduce money bills whereas Senators cannot.
170
What topic must representatives' speeches be on?
Only the bill in question.
171
What can the Senate do with money bills?
Amend them.
172
Where does the Power of the Purse really lie in COTUS?
House.
173
Can Senators talk about more than House representatives?
Yes
Their speeches can be more thematic because they are designed to be the more in-depth scrutiny chamber
174
What is evidence that Senator's speeches have more range?
Thurmond discussed the Constitution, SCOTUS rulings and even George Washington's farewell speech in making his argument against integration
175
What are 3 exclusive powers of the Senate?
1. Ratifying treaties
2. Trying impeachments
3. Confirming appointments.
176
What power does the House have in impeachment?
Raising charges.
177
Which body monitors relations between the President and the Legislative?
The Office for Legislative Affairs (branch of the executive)
Lobbies members of COTUS to vote with the President
178
How can the President persuade members of their own party to vote with them?
Offer to campaign in that legislator's constituency in an upcoming election
179
Does the Office for Legislative Affairs only lobby their own party?
No, they often lobby "across the aisle."
180
Example after the 2020 election that shows that the separation of powers is not absolute?
Kamala Harris VP became Senate President and became the most prolific user of the tie breaker in history due to the 50-50 split in the Senate.
181
What relation does Congress have with the public?
Controversial legislation should not be pursued.
182
When can the President be impeached? Quote from the Constitution.
"high crimes and misdemeanours".
183
Where does the balance of power shift during war and why?
Towards the President
They are the commander in chief and are enumerated to act during wartime
184
What relation does Congress have with the public?
Controversial legislation should not be pursued
185
When can the President be impeached? Quote from the Constitution.
"high crimes and misdemeanours"
186
Where does the balance of power shift during war and why?
Towards the President
## Footnote
They are the commander in chief and are enumerated to act during wartime.
187
What majority is needed to impeach a federal justice? Who can do it?
2/3
The House can impeach
The Senate must convict
188
What other Congressional check is there on the judiciary and evidence it is used?
SCOTUS size can be changed
## Footnote
Done 7 times since 1801.
189
Which type of lobbying involves fundraising for a candidate?
Indirect
190
What can incumbents do to attract swing voters that challengers cannot?
Pass laws
191
What can the SCOTUS do to the COTUS?
Rule laws unconstitutional
192
If SCOTUS rules a law unconstitutional, what usually happens to the law?
It dies - COTUS doesn't seek to change the Constitution to make it legal
193
Give an example of SCOTUS changing the law made by COTUS?
1996 DOMA (Defence of Marriage Act) passed which gave states the right to refuse to recognise inter-state same-sex marriages
This law was struck down by United States v Windsor (2013) and Obergefell v Hodges (2015) because it violated the 14th amendment, which effectively legalised same-sex marriage in the US
194
When was the last time a SCOTUS judge was impeached, what happened and what does it show?
1811
He was subsequently acquitted by the Senate
195
Evidence that the independents in Congress are not so independent?
Angus King (ME) and Bernie Sanders (VT) both members of Democratic Congress
196
What is divided government?
Where the Presidency, House and Senate are not all held by the same party
197
2 causes of gridlock in Congress
1. Filibuster
2. Divided government
198
What proportion of Bush's regular vetoes were overturned and what does this show?
1/3
It is hard to overturn vetoes
199
Is oversight an enumerated power in the constitution?
No
200
4 ways Congress can oversight?
1. Investigating the executive
2. Confirming presidential nominations
3. Impeaching officials
4. Ratifying treaties
201
How does Congress investigate the executive?
Committees can hold hearings
202
Example of Congress carrying out an investigation? What do witnesses have to do?
Investigation into antisemitism on college campuses
Claudine Gay, Chairman of Harvard University, was forced to come before a committee to give evidence. Her poor performance led to her resignation as Harvard president in 2024
203
Example that shows that investigation of the executive has become partisan?
Only after the Democrats won the House in the 2018 midterms that impeachment proceedings began against Trump
204
Evidence that investigations of the executive are becoming less stringent?
1. Increased partisanship
2. GAO cuts
205
What were the GAO cuts?
Government Accountability Office which assists Congressional investigations into the executive has had a 45% staff cut between 1975 and 2015
206
Evidence that impeachment is still respectable?
1. 1974 - Nixon resigned due to threat of impeachment
2. 1998 - despite Senate acquittal, Clinton's reputation never quite recovered from his impeachment
207
Example that shows how confirmation of nominees has become partisan (beside Garland)
Betsy DeVos - Senate went 50-50 and VP Mike Pence tie broke when DeVos was appointed education secretary. She displayed a marked ignorance of education policy and suggested students carry guns to protect themselves from bears
208
Evidence that impeachment has become a rallying cry for partisan presidents?
2021 - after Trump's second impeachment his approval rating soars to 49%
209
What is the primary weakness of Congress' treaty power?
Presidents can bypass
210
Example of a treaty that Senate rejected and the impact?
1919 Treaty of Versailles - American isolationism
211
Why does Congress have the power of the purse? What is it?
Congress represents the people
The power to raise taxes for government spending
212
2 types of government shutdown?
1. Partial
2. Full
213
3 ways Congress abuses its power of the purse?
1. Government shutdowns
2. Pork barrel funding
3. Emergencies - Presidents can bypass
214
How did Trump bypass power of the purse?
Declaration of National Emergency
215
4 main caucuses
1. House Democrat
2. House Republican
3. Senate Democrat
4. Senate Republican
216
How many Republicans are in the House Freedom Caucus?
35 House
217
Example of a caucus being powerful?
In 2018 the House Freedom Caucus opposed Trump's budget as overly interventionist. Democrat votes were needed to prevent a government shutdown
218
Are all caucuses partisan?
No - Congressional Black Caucus is officially bipartisan, but only four Republicans have ever joined
219
Who chooses the Majority/Minority leaders in both Houses?
Party caucus via a vote
220
What is the job of majority/minority leaders?
Plan the legislative agenda and instruct members on voting intentions
221
How is the Speaker of the House chosen? Why is it a powerful position?
Vote of House membership (hence normally from majority party)
It is third in line to the Presidency and can influence legislative outcomes
222
Who picks members of Conference and Select Committees?
House Speaker
223
3 powers of the Speaker (House)
1. Keep order in the House and preside over debates
2. Act as leader of the majority party
3. Appoint members to select and conference committees
224
When there is divided government and the House belongs to the opposition party, what else can the Speaker serve as?
Spokesperson of the opposition
225
Who was House Speaker from 2007-2011, re-elected in 2019? What does this show?
Nancy Pelosi
Increased representation of women in Congress
## Footnote
Increased representation of women in Congress.
226
Example of separation of powers that means that party discipline in the House is weak?
Positions cannot be offered in exchange for loyalty like in UK
227
How can House Speaker make their party loyal?
Control who sits on the Committees
228
Who decides committee membership in the Senate, what effect does this have?
Party leaders (majority and minority leaders) decide who sits on committees - used as a vehicle for party discipline
229
Example that shows that Congressional party discipline might be increasing?
In 2018 midterms the Republicans lost the House because Trump critics resigned - but in 2019 impeachment trial only one Senator voted for conviction - Mitt Romney
230
What is one reason for polarisation and evidence?
Party loyalties among electorate cemented as part of identity. The number of swing districts in Congress fallen from 164 in 1997 to just 91 by 2020
231
Why does the UK have greater party discipline?
The PM can offer posts in government
232
2 pieces of evidence that partisanship may not be absolute?
1. Problem Solvers Caucus since 2017 - 48 members from both parties even in 2025 - MORE MEMBERS THAN HOUSE FREEDOM CAUCUS
2. Stimulus (CARES Act) 96-0 vote in Senate - March 2020, more than $2 trillion
233
4 types of committee in Congress
1. Standing committees
2. Select committees
3. House Rules committee
4. Conference committees
234
How many Senate standing committees are there, how many House?
20 House, 16 Senate
235
Are standing committees doing all their work together? Where does much of the work happen?
Subcommittees
236
How does party representation work on the committees?
Parties are represented in the same proportion across all committees - if Democrats have a 50.00001% margin of victory, they're in the majority on all committees and all the committee chairs are theirs. Fair?
237
What is a standing committee?
A US select committee - these stand all the time - US SELECT COMMITTEES ARE PERIODICAL
238
2 focuses of standing committees?
1. Hold hearings during the committee stage of bills and deliberate on whether a bill should be sent to the floor
2. Carry out investigations (oversight) of the executive in their given policy area
239
What other role do standing committees in the Senate only have?
They consider Presidential appointments. Hearings are held and then a vote, which then puts the candidate to the Senate
240
Why are standing committees necessary?
To allow Senate insight into the diverse range of policy areas it is responsible for
241
Why are investigations by standing committees into the executive powerful?
Significant media attention
242
Why does the US have select committees?
To take the pressure off the relevant standing committee
243
Are all select committees temporary? Examples?
No
House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, Senate Select Committee on Intelligence
244
Do select committees work on legislation? What do they do?
No
Investigate
245
Example of a select committee investigation?
House Select Committee on Benghazi (2014-16) investigating the 2012 terrorist attack on the US embassy in Benghazi, Libya
246
Example of select committees being partisan?
2015 - Clinton (H) was interrogated for 11 hours by the Select committee for her alleged role in the Benghazi attack
The subsequent 800 page report was split along party lines. It said that Clinton didn't play a major role as Republicans alleged. However, subsequent "independent" reports by Republicans and Democrats on the committee painted Clinton H in a different light
## Footnote
The subsequent 800 page report was split along party lines. It said that Clinton didn't play a major role as Republicans alleged. However, subsequent "independent" reports by Republicans and Democrats on the committee painted Clinton H in a different light.
247
What does House Rules Committee do? 2 things
1. Sets the rules for a bills passage through the House e.g. how much time on the floor, when it will be timetabled
2. Sets "open" or "closed" rules which detail whether the bill will tolerate amendments
248
Why is the House Rules Committee partisan?
It has a majority bonus of 2:1 - 2/3 of members must come from the majority party
249
Why is the House Rules Committee powerful?
It can only be overruled by a "discharge" motion from the House (majority)
250
Example that shows HRC might be abusing its power?
115th COTUS (2017-19) - 56% of bills were closed rule
251
Example that shows HRC chair being lobbied?
2013-2019 Pete Sessions Republican received millions of dollars of donations from lobbying firms in opposition to marijuana.
252
Who goes on the conference committee?
Members from the relevant standing committee from each House
253
What is a conference report?
The final amenable bill that gets sent to both Houses
254
Evidence that conference committees are less used now?
67 conference committees 1995-97 COTUS, only 7 2017-19
255
What do party leaders do instead of conference committees? Why?
Accept the other chamber's bill
The final bill goes out of their control otherwise
256
How do congresspeople communicate with constituents?
1. Electronic communication
2. Town hall meetings
257
How does passing legislation allow congresspeople to represent the views of their constituents?
Delegate theory may apply
258
Example of how committee membership allows congresspeople to represent their constituents?
From 2015-2020 the chair of the Senate Agriculture Committee was Pat Roberts, Senator for the agricultural state of Kansas, he was also chair of the House Agricultural Committee
259
When was legislation introduced to try and stop pork barreling? What did it do?
2011
Limited the "earmarking" of Congressional funds for particular projects
260
Explanation for the incumbency factor?
Fewer competitive districts
261
Example of how the Senate is better in terms of status than the House?
16 out of the 50 Presidents were former Senators, including JFK, Obama and Joe Biden
262
What is the primary way that Presidents can influence legislation?
The Office for Legislative Affairs is a branch of the executive
263
Most important stage of the legislative process?
Committee stage - most bills fail here
264
When a bill is released, what must happen before it goes to the House?
It must have rules set on whether amendments can be proposed
265
True or false - only the House can vote on amendments to a bill
False - but HRC can make it so that amendments cannot be introduced to a bill
266
What is the problem with the fact that both Houses can propose and vote on amendments to a bill? How is this reconciled?
Different versions emerge
Conference committee
267
Who comprises conference committee?
Members of the bills standing committee from both houses
268
If the bill is "left on the desk"...
It automatically becomes law within 10 days
269
How does a pocket veto work?
President leaves the bill for 10 days, and if COTUS adjourns in that time then the bill is vetoed
270
Who organises timetabling in the House?
House Rules Committee
271
How are bills timetabled in the Senate?
Unanimous consent agreement
272
3 diversity facts about America?
1. 2045 will be majority non-white
2. 14% of population are immigrants
3. Young
273
Fact that shows America is comparatively young?
Millennials (1981-96) outnumber Baby boomers (1946-64)
274
3 diversity facts about the 117th COTUS?
1. Most racially diverse
2. Lowest proportion of Christians
3. Highest number of women
275
3 diversity stats about 116th COTUS?
1. First two Muslim women elected
2. Record of 4 Native Americans elected
3. AOC elected at 29, youngest ever congressperson
276
4 groups still significantly underrepresented in COTUS?
1. Hispanic people
2. Women
3. African Americans
4. Atheists
277
What percentage of women in COTUS are Republican?
26%
278
Diversity fact about Hispanic?
18% of population are Hispanic but only 9% in COTUS
279
Fact that shows that African Americans are better represented by the Democratic party than by the Republicans?
Of 61 African Americans in Congress only 3 were GOP
280
Fact about atheists in Congress
23% of US population but only one congressperson who was not religious (Kyrsten Sinema, Sen D-AZ)
281
LGBTQ representation in COTUS?
117COTUS
4.5% US, 2% Congress
282
Average age discrepancy in COTUS?
59 in COTUS
38 in US
283
Professional discrepancy in 117COTUS?
99% have a degree
35% in US
284
2 reasons for underrepresentation in COTUS
1. Underrepresentation at state legislatures
2. Majority-minority districts don't exist at Senatorial level
285
2 examples of how Congress is traditionally male dominated
1. Incompatible with motherhood e.g. first Senator to have a child in office was Tammy Duckworth in 2018 and she had to change the Senate rules so she could bring her baby in the chamber
2. Until 2009 the Senate swimming pool was male-only
286
Example that shows that COTUS is dominated by 2 main parties?
117COTUS; all members of House either Democrat or Republican and only two independents in the Senate, both of whom were loyal to the Democratic caucus
287
3 features of lawmaking in the US?
1. Gridlock
2. Divided government
3. Filibuster
288
Why is divided government a problem?
Congress won't pass your laws
289
Paradox about Congress?
Americans love divided government better than unified as it has better scrutiny
But they complain about the gridlock it creates
290
Cloture
3/5 of Senators vote to end a filibuster
291
4 reasons to think Congress is effective at lawmaking with examples
1. Has passed landmark legislation e.g. CRA 1965 or ACA 2010
2. Encourages bipartisanship e.g. First Step Act
3. Emergency legislation can be passed e.g. CARES Act 2020
4. Check on the executive - this is good e.g. Trump border wall stopped
292
Fact that shows Congress is getting less effective?
6-7% of bills became law 1980s
2-3% of bills became law nowadays
293
What is cloture?
3/5 of Senators vote to end a filibuster
294
What are 4 reasons to think Congress is effective at lawmaking?
1. Has passed landmark legislation e.g. CRA 1965 or ACA 2010
2. Encourages bipartisanship e.g. First Step Act
3. Emergency legislation can be passed e.g. CARES Act 2020
4. Check on the executive - this is good e.g. Trump border wall stopped
295
What fact shows Congress is getting less effective?
6-7% of bills became law in the 1980s; 2-3% of bills become law nowadays
296
What are 4 reasons to think Congress is ineffective?
1. Presidential vetoes are a real threat. Only a third of Bush's overturned and that was good going
2. Super ineffective - 2-3% of bills become law
3. Senate filibuster
4. HRC Closed Rules used more and more frequently - debate closed down as amendments cannot be tabled
297
What is an example of how unified government weakens oversight?
Impeachment proceedings did not begin against Trump until 2018, nor did House Oversight and Reform Committee investigations into the Trump Turnberry Golf Resort airport links
298
What is the main power of Congress to investigate the executive?
Subpoena - witnesses can be legally compelled to come to the stand
299
What is an example that shows Congress' ability to investigate the executive has waned?
Government Accountability Office to support committees' investigations has been shrunk
45% cut in staff between 1975 and 2015
300
Is oversight in the constitution?
No, it is an implied power
301
Besides the extraordinary improbability of success in the Senate, why is impeachment a weak check on the executive?
People love it.
Trump's approval rating soared to 49% after his impeachment in 2019 despite the fact it was the real deal
302
What are 4 reasons to think oversight is effective?
1. Evidence of unqualified appointments being stopped e.g. Harriet Miers 2005
2. Committee investigations provide high-profile scrutiny
3. Impeachment or threat thereof a significant deterrent
4. Treaties can be stopped
303
What are 4 reasons to think oversight is ineffective?
1. No President has ever been removed from impeachment. Compare to parliamentary systems
2. Weaker during periods of unified government
3. Senate treaties has meant the legislature has taken the lead on foreign policy e.g. Senate veto of Versailles led to isolationism
4. Party allegiance is a big deal e.g. Trump's loyalty vote in 2020
304
What is an example that shows Senate oversight is along party lines?
52-48 for Trump's removal from office - only one Republican broke party lines
305
What is the deal with the Power of the Purse?
Only House can start tax bills, and both houses can request amendments
306
What is the most significant implication of the power of the purse?
All budget bills need Congressional approval
2018-19 government shutdown - 35 days, where Trump kept vetoing everything
307
What are 3 reasons why the power of the purse is effective?
1. One of the best checks Congress has on the executive
2. Shutdowns rare and usually partial
3. Executive forced to make concessions
308
What are 3 reasons the power of the purse is ineffective?
1. Pork barrelling has occurred
2. Emergency funding to circumvent Congress
3. Government shutdowns are becoming more frequent and are always unpopular
309
What fact shows government shutdowns are becoming more commonplace?
The 3 longest government shutdowns are all since 1995
310
Where do the majority and minority leaders come from?
Election by the party caucus
311
What is an example of how the UK system is more representative than the American?
34% women vs 27% women in Parliament/Congress
We have had already 3 female PMs and the US has had no female President, no female Senate Majority leader and no female Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
312
Why is it harder for House/Senate Majority/Minority leaders to get congresspeople to vote as they would like?
No powers of patronage except from committee nomination
313
Who enforces party members to vote a certain way?
Majority/Minority whips
314
How can the speaker of the House influence voting behaviour?
1. Seats on the HRC
2. Seats on select committees and conference committees
315
How can Senate Majority/Minority leaders influence voting behaviour?
Committee nomination
316
What is the ultimate way that Congresspeople can be kept in line?
Withdrawal of party support
317
What evidence shows that party support is essential to win elections?
In 2018, the Republicans lost the House but generally made net gains and won seats in areas where Trump had personally campaigned
318
What is an example that shows party discipline is stronger?
2019 - Mitt Romney the only Senator to break party lines and vote to convict Trump
319
What was the voting behaviour on the CARES Act?
96-0
Bipartisanship lives
## Footnote
Bipartisanship lives
320
What makes standing committee oversight more effective than general Congressional oversight?
Their accumulated experience
321
Example of Senate standing committee abusing the power of vetting executive appointments?
2016 - Senate Judiciary Committee refused to hear confirmation hearings for Merrick Garland
322
What is the relationship between the speaker and the HRC?
The speaker can use the HRC to achieve their agenda
323
Example that shows closed rules is increasing?
115COTUS - 56% closed rules, a record
324
Why is the HRC chair lobbied?
Immense power - can stop laws
325
What is a popular way congresspeople communicate with constituents?
Town hall meetings
326
Why are congresspeople arguably poorly representing the people as regards passing law?
Mandate theory clearly dominates
327
Reason to think that the 90% incumbency re-election rate in the House is no big deal?
Fewer competitive districts
328
Incumbency reelection rates in the House
90%
329
Incumbency reelection rates Senate and significance
In excess of 80%
The idea that fewer competitive districts is limited
330
Key point if a question is asked regarding the ability of Congress/Parliament to represent the people?
Break it down into two sections - how representative the people are of the population, and how representative they are in their actions
331
Example of how the Senate is more powerful than the UK House of Lords?
Lords can only stall for one year, Senate approval needed, power of ratification/nominations
332
2 powers of the Senate
1. Confirm appointments
2. Treaties
333
What is the power of the Senate regarding money bills?
They can veto or amend
334
Why is the Senate more prestigious?
- Only 100 so less competition for prestigious Senate posts
- Only 2 per state so higher profile
- 16 presidents were former Senators
335
Fact that shows that Senators have better career prospects?
16 Senators became President
336
Why does the President need the support from Congress? How do they achieve it?
To pass laws, separation of powers
Office for Legislative Affairs
337
3 ways Presidents can influence Congress?
1. State of the Union - party is embarrassed if it cannot pass its own President's legislation
2. Office for Legislative Affairs and official request
3. System of favours - you help the President, and the President helps you (e.g. Trump's 2018 midterm campaigning)
338
Example that shows that one of the few legislative checks on the SCOTUS - impeaching federal justices - is seldom used?
Last time a SCOTUS judge was impeached was 1811 and they were acquitted
Usually, federal justices are only 'got' for egregious offences e.g. Thomas Porteus and massive amounts of corruption
339
When was Trump's Senate acquittal the first time around?
February 2020
340
How many Presidents have been impeached by the House and how does this show the system working effectively?
3 - Trump, Clinton and Andrew Johnson
Not overused
341
Requirements for house impeachment?
Simple majority vote
342
Is Congress the broken branch of government?
I would say so
343
Is turnout higher in the US than in the UK? Why?
No - both have turnouts around 60%
344
Official name for caucus?
Congressional Member Organisations
345
Relevance of caucuses to lawmaking?
Often vote as a block
346
3 high spenders on lobbying?
1. US Chamber of Commerce
2. American Medical Association
3. General Electric
347
What is indirect lobbying?
Attempts to influence government policymakers by indirect means e.g. networking
348
Evidence that, despite more competitive districts in the UK, incumbency is largely unchanged?
In US around 80-90% - in UK also around 80%
pretty lugubrious
349
3 types of lobbying?
1. Direct - getting up close
2. Indirect - organising networking
3. Grassroots - attention seeking
350
Example of grassroots lobbying?
Newspaper articles
351
Who usually initiates bills? What is this evidence of?
Leadership, often committee chairs, on behalf of POTUS
Diminished responsibility for minor congresspeople
352
How many sponsors does a bill need? How many cosponsors?
1 sponsor
Unlimited co-sponsors
353
Is it fair that committee chairs bring forward many bills?
Not really, because they are proposing their own legislation
354
What is the 'mark up'?
Amendment within a committee
355
Equivalent of House Rules Committee in the Senate?
Meeting of Senate leadership
356
Why are the Senate and House bills often very different?
They debate concurrently
357
Lowest output COTUS in history? Evidence of...
112th - 2010-12
Increased partisanship
358
Why do committee chairs have too much power?
Can mothball legislation
359
3 rules in the House that restrict debate compared to the Senate?
1. Often 'controlled time' - specified time and order for speeches
2. Otherwise open debate, granted by the Speaker, usually 5 minutes to speak
3. Can only discuss what is being debated
360
What is the power of the purse?
Money bills WHICH RAISE REVENUE (i.e. all taxes)
361
Only restriction on Senatorial speeches besides cloture?
Max 2 speeches per debate per day
362
When a bill is introduced, what actually happens?
The bill is assigned a registration number and then delegated to the relevant committee
363
Where do complex bills often end up in committee stage?
Subcommittees
364
Each committee and subcommittee has...
A Chair (majority)
A Ranking member (minority)
365
What is the nickname of the HRC?
"Traffic cop" of the House
Sets rules for debate and timetables them
366
Where can bills be pigeon holed?
Either the HRC or the standing committee
367
2 differences in procedural debating roles for each chamber?
1. Unlimited debate times in Senate versus limited in House
2. Simple majority needed to end debate in House, or whatever set by HRC, versus cloture in Senate
3. Relevancy - debate AND PROPOSED AMENDMENTS need to be relevant in House, but not in Senate
368
What evidence is there that conference committee is in decline?
67 conference reports 1995-97
0 2021-23
369
How are conference committee members appointed?
Senior members with relevant experience appointed by the Chair of the relevant standing committee from both Houses (the committee that considered the bill in the first place)
370
Are conference committees partisan?
Yes, with the governing party chair apportioning seats on the committee. Usually conference committees are only 3 member so the minority party only gets 1/3 of the representation
371
How long is the pocket veto period?
10 days
372
Why is a veto override not really 2/3?
It is 2/3 quorum
373
4 things that influence the standing of the President with Congress?
1. Party homogeneity - harder with divided government
2. Public opinion - weak Presidents find lawmaking harder
3. Presidential actions - those under impeachment find legislation harder
4. War and peace - at war, Congress is far less influential
374
How can you circumvent the Congressional treaty check?
Sign an 'executive agreement'
Obama pursued the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action with Iran.
375
How many times has SCOTUS size been changed since 1801 and who has the power to do it?
COTUS
Seven times
376
Evidence Congress is less productive than before?
Average since 2000 is 372 bills per Congress, but with 118th (2023-25), only 209 bills were passed
377
What term can be used to describe the Presidency being used as an agenda setting position?
The 'Bully Pulpit' - Theodore Roosevelt
378
Example of how the Speaker of the House is an opposition leader?
Newt Gingrich 1995-1999
Gingrich orchestrated a government shutdown in November 1995 after Clinton refused swinging cuts to Medicare, Medicaid and other domestic programs
379
How has Congressional power grown in recent years?
16th Amendment and the rolling forward of government
380
Why was there a surge in female congresspeople in 2018? How did this turn out?
24% (largest ever) surpassed in successive Congress which have achieved 27% in 2020 - but this has not been surpassed. It remains 27%
381
Average age of Congress?
58, with the youngest being 29 and the oldest 89
382
Evidence educational discrepancy is falling?
Now only 94% have a bachelor's degree, compared to 40% of general US population
383
How many Christians are in COTUS vs general population?
88% vs 71%
384
Most underrepresented group in US Congress?
Atheists - Kyrsten Sinema is the only atheist, with 23% of US population also being atheist. She is also the first openly bisexual Senator
385
Evidence Congress' poor approval rating might be misplaced?
Despite a poor approval rating, (18%), the majority of individual Congresspeople have more than 50% approval, suggesting the problem is not the people but the institution
386
In what other key way are women underrepresented?
Leadership positions are less accessible to women, e.g. there has never been a female President
387
Two components of gerrymandering?
Cracking - breaking up majorities
Packing - packing them into one district
388
Example of how pressure groups, using the short election cycle of representatives, can embed themselves?
Many receive money from the NRA - despite more than 90% of Americans supporting gun control in some form to prevent the 'Gun Show loophole', background checks are not passed
389
2 reasons party allegiance isn't actually that important?
1. Caucuses
2. Non-aligned voting
390
A caucus who have acted in an anti-partisan way?
HFC - forcing John Boehner's resignation in 2015 and stopping Kevin McCarthy, before also rejecting American Health Care Bill 2017. Also brought down Kevin McCarthy and replaced him with Mike Johnson in 2024
391
Why are voters actually not that partisan?
6/10 say they feel unrepresented by the main parties - Trump and Sanders made appeals by acting against party mainstreams
392
Which age group are least partisan?
Millennials - in 2016, more likely to be independent than affiliated
393
Example of a war without Congressional approval?
Vietnam
394
What structural way is the Senate designed to resist quick changes in public opinion?
2/3 of the Senate is not up for election each cycle
395
Last time a third party sat in COTUS
2019-21 Justin Amash became a libertarian
396
Why might minorities be better represented in the House than the Senate? Evidence?
Majority-minority districts, particularly in gerrymandered areas
14.9% of the current House is African American, but only 5% of the Senate is African American
397
Which ethnic minority is best represented in Congress?
African Americans - 12% of 2021-23 Congress but 13% of population
398
What did Washington say about the Senate?
Cools legislation as a saucer cools tea
399
Evidence two parties dominate COTUS?
2021-23 all were members of either Dems or Reps except Bernie Sanders and Angus King, but both are Dem caucussed, and Sanders even ran for Dem nomination in 2016 and 2020
400
3 pieces of major legislation passed in united government?
Obama 2009-11
ACA 2010
AJA $447 billion
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act $831 billion
401
3 ways Congress performs its legislative function effectively?
1. During periods of unified government, major legislation can be passed
2. Emergency legislation can be passed quickly e.g. CARES Act
3. Rejecting legislation and diluting it is a vital example of the executive being checked e.g. removing border wall spending
402
3 ways Congress performs its legislative function ineffectively?
1. Only 2-3% of bills become law, down from 6-7% in the 1980s - HOWEVER THIS MAY BE BECAUSE THERE ARE MORE BILLS, IDK
2. 2011-13 COTUS passed only 283 bills - the worst in history
3. Closed rules increasingly used
403
Evidence congressional ineffectiveness is not limited to divided government?
Despite a trifecta, Trump could not repeal Obamacare in his first 100 days
404
Evidence congressional oversight falls when governments are popular?
Sweeping powers of PATRIOT Act after 9/11 and Bush's popularity rating at over 90%
405
What key power do US committees have that Parliamentary committees do not?
Can compel witnesses to appear via subpoena
406
Evidence that the Senate appointment process is not about merit?
2017 Betsy DeVos approved as education secretary, despite having no basic knowledge of education policy and arguing that guns would protect students from bears. Approved 51-50 by VP Pence tie break
407
Why is impeachment a check on the whole executive, not just the President?
In theory, any member of the executive branch who was confirmed by the Senate can be impeached
408
Limitation of impeachment?
Popular - Trump surged to 49% after first impeachment failed 52-48
409
How many Republican senators voted to convict in 2019?
1 - Mitt Romney
410
When were Trump's impeachments?
2019 and 2021
411
Evidence impeachment is a deterrent?
Nixon resigned in 1974 before impeachment
412
Two types of government shutdown?
1. Full - All non-essential functions shut down
2. Partial - less disruptive, with a funding agreement reached quickly
413
Why might COTUS' power of the purse be subordinate to the executive?
Government shutdowns are extremely unpopular, so COTUS occasionally has to concede defeat
414
3 downsides of Congressional power of the purse?
1. Can be bypassed by national emergency e.g. Trump 2019
2. Pork-barrelling
3. Usually stands down in conflicts
415
Why is COTUS more likely to back down in a budget stand off?
COTUS approval rating 18% versus usually mid-40s for POTUS
416
Example of caucus influence?
HFC opposing the early 2018 budget forced GOP to depend on Dem votes to pass
417
How are the majority and minority leaders selected?
Election by the caucus
418
Who chooses members of conference and select committees?
Speaker of the House
419
Why is the Speaker always from the majority party?
They are elected by the whole House
420
Evidence that the House Speaker has great power?
3rd in line to Presidency
421
4 people who assist the Speaker
1. House majority leader
2. Assistant Speaker
3. Party Whip
4. Chair of the Party Caucus
422
Who was the first female Speaker of the House?
Nancy Pelosi - 2007-2011 and 2019-2023
423
Why can the Speaker exert greater loyalty over their party membership?
Has some power of patronage, deciding who sits on the HRC and who sits and chairs select and conference committees
424
What incentive for party loyalty is there in the Senate?
Party leadership decides committee membership
425
Why has party unity increased in recent years? Evidence?
Increased partisanship
Democratic unity in 2018-19 against border wall funding
426
Example of how moderate candidates in the GOP left in 2018?
Ted Poe did not stand again in 2018, citing House Freedom Caucus obstructionism. Poe was a Republican
427
Why has party unity increased in recent years? Evidence?
Increased partisanship
## Footnote
Democratic unity in 2018-19 against border wall funding
428
Evidence that bipartisanship was more widespread in the past?
Even the 1986 Tax Reform Bill attracted Democratic support
429
Most recent example of bipartisanship and caveat?
CARES Act passed 96-0
But came just weeks after Trump's impeachment and subsequent stimuli were harder to agree
## Footnote
But came just weeks after Trump's impeachment and subsequent stimuli were harder to agree
430
What actually happens during the committee stage of a bill?
It is investigated by a standing committee, who may call witnesses and launch investigations to that end
431
What else can a standing committee do beyond scrutinising bills?
Carry out investigations into the executive in their policy area
432
What way are Senate standing committees different to House ones?
For one, the appointment system is different, but Senatorial standing committees have the additional job of considering Presidential appointments
433
Who actually refused Merrick Garland in 2016 and what does this show?
Senate Judiciary Committee, on the advice of Mitch McConnell
Power of standing committees
434
Example of a select committee and evaluation?
Senate Select Committee on Intelligence 2017-20 - Russian interference in 2016 election
Despite a damning Mueller Report, Trump was re-elected in 2024.
## Footnote
Despite a damning Mueller Report, Trump was re-elected in 2024.
435
Another reason the Benghazi committee was a joke?
Spent $7 million
436
Open rules?
Amendments may be proposed
437
Closed rules?
Amendments may not be proposed
438
Evidence of partisanship on HRC?
Small, with a 2:1 majority bonus
439
What does HRC decide?
1. Closed or open rules
2. Time on the floor
3. When it will be debated
4. Regulation of debate
440
How can HRC be overruled?
Simple majority discharge petition
441
Highest percentage of HRC closed rules?
56% 2017-19
442
Evidence HRC chair is corrupt?
Pete Sessions - chair 2013-19 - millions donated by pressure groups and corporate donors
Used his position to prevent open rules on bills about marijuana, a personal hatred of his
## Footnote
Used his position to prevent open rules on bills about marijuana, a personal hatred of his
443
Why might US legislators be more effective delegates than UK MPs?
Because party allegiance is less binding in COTUS
444
Evidence incumbency rates in the UK are lower than in the US?
350 MPs were not re-elected in 2024. Whilst some of these chose not to stand again, it is far off the 90% mark boasted in the US
Only in 2020, 7% of House Districts flipped
## Footnote
Only in 2020, 7% of House Districts flipped
445
Evidence of a Senator with a specialist background passing relevant legislation?
2015-2020 Chair of Senate Agricultural Committee was Kansan Pat Roberts. Steered the Agriculture Improvement Act 2018 through COTUS, a bipartisan crop insurance bill
446
Pork barrelling stats?
Opposed in 2011 with legislation 'earmarking' banned
2012-17 $3.7bn spent
2018/19 averaged $15bn a year - back
447
What is the main way POTUS can get COTUS members to pass laws?
Informal powers
448
Example of SCOTUS>COTUS?
1996 DOMA struck down by US v Windsor 2013 and 2015 Obergefell v Hodges
449
Can only the House set up investigatory select committees? Example?
No
Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities was a Senate select committee
## Footnote
Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities was a Senate select committee
450
Example of a pressure group at work another way?
Endorsing candidate.
NRA gives election candidates a 'grade' to show how pro-gun they are
451
Key eval on the discharge motion?
1. CAN BE USED AGAINST ANY COMMITTEE
2. Requires simple majority of signatures of House members
3. SO EXTREMELY RARE
4. Famous example was the BCRA 2002
452
Why might discharge motions fail?
Signatures are public so party leaders could find out
453
Facts on success of discharge motions?
1935-2022 - 4% of motions filed are successful
