carbohydrates Flashcards

1
Q

what are the 4 main and primary biomolecule in our body?

A

protein
nucleic acid
carbohydrates
lipids

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2
Q

what are the functions of carbohydrates

A

o Provide energy to the body (main)
o Part of the structural elements of some cells and tissues

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3
Q

a carbohydrate that is a complex carbohydrate
structural component of plants

A

cellulose

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4
Q

Primary source for brain erythrocytes and retinal cells in human

A

carbohydrates

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5
Q

Major food source and energy supply of the bod

A

carbohydrates

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6
Q

carbohydrates can be Stored primarily as ___

A

liver and muscles glycogen

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7
Q

Central ingredient for life

A

carbohydrates

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8
Q

what are the elements or compounds comprising the carbohydrates

A

compounds containing C, H
and O

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9
Q

what are the 2 main functional groups of carbohydrates

A

aldehyde
ketones

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10
Q

what is the general formula for carbohydrates

A

Cx(H20)y

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11
Q

why protein has a different checmical formula aside from the other biomolecules?

A

it has nitrogen

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12
Q

derivatives of carbohydrates

A

phosphates, sulfates and amines

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13
Q

carbohydrates are can be classified depending on the amount of sugar

name them all

A

monosaccharide
disaccharide
oligosaccharide
polysaccharide

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14
Q

how many sugars are thre in oligosaccharide?

A

2-10

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15
Q

how many sugar are there in polysaccharide?

A

greater than 10

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16
Q

__ is the simplest carbohydrate

A

Glycol aldehyde (CHO). or glyceraldehyde

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17
Q

__ is the only carbohydrate to be directly used by the cell with the help of insulin, it is quickly metabolized.

A

Glucose

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18
Q

The brain is completely dependent on blood glucose
for energy production -____ of glucose utilization in
resting adults accounts in the central nervous system
(CNS).

A

2/3

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19
Q

Glucose metabolism generates __, __, ___as intermediate products

A

pyruvic acid, lactic acid, and acetyl coenzyme A

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20
Q

an intermediate products that is a pathway to ATP production

A

pyruvic acid

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21
Q

an intermediate product that is formed in anaerobic conditions

A

lactic acid

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22
Q

what is the enzyme found in the mouth that will breakdown foods to create a polysaccharide

A

salivary amylase

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23
Q

salivary amylase will breakdown __ to produce a polysaccharide called ___

A

starch; maltose

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24
Q

is there a digestion of carbohydrates happening in the stomach?

A

none

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25
Q

why is there no digestion of carbohydrates happening in the stomach?

A

because of too high acidity caused by the hydrochloric acid making it deactivated

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26
Q

an enzyme that will help in breaking down carbs in pancreas and liver is called

A

pancreatic amylase

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27
Q

pancreatic amylase will breakdown ___ into shorter carbohydrate chain

A

dextrin

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28
Q

the enzyme sucrase will breakdown sucrose into ___

A

glucose and fructose

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29
Q

the enzyme maltase will breakdown between the 2 units of

A

2 glucose units of maltose

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30
Q

the enzyme lactase willbeakdown lactose into

A

galactose and glucose

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31
Q

example of reducing substances or sugars

A

glucose, maltose,
fructose, lactose and galactose

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32
Q

The presence of a double bond and a negative
charge in the enol anion makes ___ an active reducing substance.

A

glucose

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33
Q

what is the most common non reducing sugar?

A

sucrose

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34
Q

what does it mean to be a nonreducing sugar?

A

Nonreducing sugar do not contain an active ketone or aldehyde group.

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35
Q

carbohydrates can be classified based on the number of carbons

what is known to be a center carbon of sugar

A

anomeric carbon

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36
Q

3 carbon compounds is called

A

trioses

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37
Q

4 carbon compounds is called

A

tetroses

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38
Q

5 carbon compounds is called

A

pentoses

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39
Q

6 carbon compounds is called

A

hexoses

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40
Q

among the classification based on the number of carbons, which one is the most important?

A

pentoses

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41
Q

what will be the term for the compound if the CO functional group is a sugar

A

aldose

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42
Q

what will be the term for the compound if the CO functional group is a ketone

A

ketose

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43
Q

Models to Represent Carbohydrat

A

Fischer Project
Haworth Projection

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44
Q

Has the aldehyde or ketone at the top of the drawing

A

Fischer Projection

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45
Q

Carbons are numbered starting at the aldehyde or
ketone end

A

Fischer Projection

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46
Q

Straight chain or cyclic (linked in hemiacetal form)

A

Fischer Projection

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47
Q

Cyclic form

A

Haworth Projection

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48
Q

what is the fdifference between ketose and aldose in terms of the formula?

A

aldose C= O-H
Ketose C= O

ketose has no hydrogen attached

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49
Q

More representative of the actual structue

A

Haworth Projection

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50
Q

Formed when the functional group (ketone or
aldehyde) reacts with an alcohol group on the same
sugar to form a ring (hemiacetal ring)

A

Haworth Projection

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51
Q

Pathways in Carbohydrate Metabolism

A
  1. Glycolysis (Embden Meyerhof pathway)
  2. Glycogenesis
  3. Glycogenolysis
  4. Gluconeogenesis
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52
Q

Formation of the fatty
acid

A

lipogenesis

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53
Q

breakdown of fatty acid

A

lipolysis

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54
Q

Also known as EMBDEN MEYERHOF PATHWAY

A

Glycolysis

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55
Q

Occurs in the cytoplasm and involves the conversion
of glucose to pyruvate and the production of ATP and
NADH

A

glycolysis

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56
Q

Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate can be
converted to ___ and this is important for muscle
tissue, which has no adequate oxygen supply.

A

lactate

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57
Q

glycolysis will convert GLUCOSE to ___

A

PYRUVATE

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58
Q

this pathway Produce ATP for cell’s energy

A

embden-meyerhof pathway

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59
Q

Formation of glucose to glycogen

A

Glycogenesis

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60
Q

Glycogenesis takes place in cytoplasm of___

A

liver and muscle

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61
Q

Glycogen is synthesized depending on the demand for
___

A

glucose and ATP

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62
Q

Process of ___ serves as built in mechanism
of the body which stores the excess carbohydrate we
consume in the form of glycogen which can be broken
down to glucose when needed

A

glycogenesis

63
Q

Breakdown of glycogen to form GLUCOSE

A

Glycogenolysis

64
Q

what are the hormones that promotes glycogenolysis

A

glucagon and epinephrine

65
Q

what organ is producing the hormone glucagon

A

pancrease

66
Q

what organ is producing the hormone epinephrine

A

adrenal glands

67
Q

Formation of GLUCOSE from non-carbohydrate
sources

A

Gluconeogenesis

68
Q

Gluconeogenesis occurs mainly in

A

liver

69
Q

the process of gluconeogenesis is For glucose dependent organs (such as

A

brain and muscles)

70
Q

a process wherein Substrates such as lactate, pyruvate, amino acids
and glycerol can be converted into glucose to
maintain normal glucose level in the blood (When low
in glucose)

A

gluconeogenesis

71
Q

what is the starting point of gluconeogenesis

A

PYRUVIC ACID

72
Q

example of the 3 carbon compound or trioses

A

glyceraldehyde

73
Q

example of the 4 carbon compound or tetroses

A

erythrose

74
Q

importance of the 5 carbon compound or pentose

A

important for nucleic acid and neurotransmitters of the brains

75
Q

example of a hexose or a 6 carbon compound

A

glucose

76
Q

example of a sugar that has a functional group of aldehyde

A

glyceraldehyde

77
Q

example of a sugar that has a functional group of ketone

A

dihydroxyacetone and fructose

78
Q

what do we called a bond for connecting 2 sugars?

A

glycosidic bonds

79
Q

examples of polysaccharide - more than 10 polymers of sugars

A

starch
glycogen
cellulose
chitin
inulin

80
Q

what are the reagents used to detect reducing sugars before?

A

benedict’s test
and fehling’s test

80
Q

SALIVARY AMYLASE IS ALSO KWOWN AS

A

ptyalin hormone

81
Q

prodcts of glycolysis

A

2 pyruvate
nadph
4 atp only 2 gains

82
Q

in severe lack of ocgn or anaeroic respiration, they convert pyruvate into ___ through enzyme __

A

lactate or lactic acid tru lactate dehydrogenase

83
Q

why do lactate test do not rewuire tourniquet

A

prolong tourniquet will introduce an anaerobic environment thus will increase the value of lactic acid –> falsely increase

84
Q

where do glycolysis takes place?

A

cytoplasm

85
Q

where do kreb’s’c cyle takes place?

A

mitochondria

86
Q

byproduct of glycolysis

A

lactate

87
Q

starting point of fatty acids

A

acetyl coa

88
Q

byproduct of kreb’s cycle

A

ketone bodies

89
Q

glucose transporter - that will absorvs glycose and galactose

A

sglt 1

90
Q

glucose transporter that will take care of the fructose

A

glut 5

91
Q

glucose transporter that will transport all the absorb glucose and fructose to the blood

A

GLUT 2

92
Q

triglyceride is composed of

A

head and a tail
1 head - 1 molecule of glycerol
tail - 3 molecules of fatty acids

93
Q

what is the source of ketone bodies

A

acetyl coa

94
Q

relation of lipolysis to blood glucose

A

lipolysis or breakdown of fats means the blood glucose level is low or decreased,

95
Q

the conversion of glucose into glucose 6 phosphate is done by the enzyme called

A

hexokinase

96
Q

where does the 10% of metabolism takes place?

A

under the pathway, hexose monophosphate shunt

97
Q

what is the end product of hexose monophosphate shunt

A

ribose 5 phosphate

98
Q

nadh helps in

A

helps the rbc to form reduced gluthathione

helps in elimination of glutathione

helps rbc against reactive oxygen specie and super oxide dismutase

prtiects rbc membrane from degradation

99
Q

low nadh will cause

A

intravascular hemolysis

100
Q

a production or formation of glycogen in liver is done by what enzyme

A

glucokinase

101
Q

a production or formation of glycogen in muscle is done by what enzyme

A

hexokinase

102
Q

the major hyperglycemic agent

A

glucagon

103
Q

the only hypoglycemic agent

A

insulin

104
Q

pancreas works as an endocrine and exocrine gland

endocrin
exocrine

A

endocrine - directly to the blood
exocrine - needs glands and sacs to excrete

105
Q

3 hormones that the pancrease secrete

A

insulin, glucagon, somastotin

106
Q

pancreas as an exocrine gland , it will secrete

A

pancreatic amylase

107
Q

it promotes the uptake if the glucose into the cell

A

insulin

108
Q

the primary hormone responsible for the entry of the cell

A

insulin

109
Q

where do we store insulin

A

liver, fat , and muscles

110
Q

Serum insulin measurements may be falsely low in
the presence of ___.

A

hemolysis

111
Q

It is synthesized by the a-cells of the islets of
Langerhans in the pancreas.

A

Glucagon

112
Q

Fasting plasma glucagon concentrations is normally

A

25-50 pg/mL.

113
Q

It is released during stress and fasting states.

A

Glucagon

114
Q

These are secreted by the cells of the zona
fasciculata and zona reticularis of the adrenal
cortex.

A

Cortisol and corticosteroids (Glucocorticosteroids)

115
Q

They decreased intestinal entry of glucose into the
cell.

A

Cortisol and corticosteroids (Glucocorticosteroids)

116
Q

Cortisol and corticosteroids (Glucocorticosteroids)

They promote __ and __.

A

gluconeogenesis and lipolysis

117
Q

These are released from the chromaffin cells of the
adrenal medulla (middle of adrenal glands)

A

Catecholamines

118
Q

they Inhibit insulin secretion and promotes
glycogenolysis and lipolysis.

A

Catecholamines

119
Q

It is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland.

A

Growth hormone (Somatotrophic)

120
Q

It decreases entry of glucose into the cell.

A

Growth hormone (Somatotrophic)

121
Q

Growth hormone (Somatotrophic)

It promotes ___ and ___.

A

glycogenolysis and glycolysis

122
Q

It promotes glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis and
intestinal absorption of glucose.

A

Thyroid hormone

123
Q

It stimulates release of cortisol from the adrenal
cortex.

A

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

124
Q

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

It promotes __- and ___

A

glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.

125
Q

It is produced by the delta cells of the islets of
Langerhans of the pancreas.

A

Somatostatin

126
Q

It is also synthesized in the paraventricular and
arcuate nuclei of the hypothalamic neuroendocrine
hormone

A

Somatostatin

127
Q

Somatostatin

It primarily inhibits the action of __

A

of insulin, growth
hormone and glucagon

128
Q

It is an increase in blood glucose concentration.

A

Hyperglycemia

129
Q

It is toxic to beta cell function and impairs insulin
secretion

A

Hyperglycemia

130
Q

problem in corticosteroids has a common disease called

A

cushing’s disease

131
Q

Laboratory Findings in Hyperglycemia

A
  1. Increase urine specific gravity
  2. Ketones in serum and urine
  3. Decrease blood and urine pH (acidosis)
  4. Electrolyte imbalance ( Na+, K+, HCO3)
132
Q

a normal fbs glucose level

A

70-99 mg/dl - book basd
>126 - stan bio

133
Q

100 - 105 mg/dl in fbs is considred

A

impaired

134
Q

> 126 mg/dl is

A

diabetic

135
Q

3important ketone bodies

A

b-hydroxybutiric acid 78%
acetoacetate 20%
acetone 2%

136
Q

acetoacetate is used to be measured using

A

gerhardt’s - colored red

137
Q

to detect acetone, we add ___ in gerhard’ts

A

glycerin

138
Q

how to measure b-hydroxybutyric acid

A

use enzymatic method

139
Q

in electrolyte imbalance caused by hyperglycemia, which electrolytes increase and decreases?

A

Na and HCo3 decrease
potassium increase

140
Q

type of diabetes has increase ketone?

A

tpe 1 DM

141
Q

A diagnosis of hypoglycemia should not be made
unless a patient meets the criteria of ___

A

Whipple’s triad

142
Q

Can cause comatose

A

hypoglycemia

143
Q

Whipple’s triad is a collection of three criteria (called
Whipple’s criteria)

A
  1. Symptoms known or likely to be caused by
    hypoglycemia especially after fasting to an
    external site. or heavy exercise
  2. A low plasma glucose measured at the time of the symptoms
  3. Relief of symptoms when the glucose level is
    raised
144
Q

range glucagon and other glycemic
hormones are released into the circulation

A

65mg/dL to 70mg/dL

145
Q
  • strongly suggest hypoglycemia (series of
    random fasting serum specimens)
A

<60 mg/dl

146
Q

observable symptoms of
hypoglycemia appear

A

50mg/dl to 55 mg/dl

147
Q

A blood glucose level ___ in
infants is considered abnormal and requires
diagnostic assessment.

A

50 mg/dL (2.8 mmol/L)

148
Q

Symptoms of Hypoglycemia

A

Neurogenic
Neuroglycopenic

149
Q

Neurogenic Symptoms of Hypoglycemia

A

tremors, palpitations, anxiety,
diaphoresis

150
Q

Neuroglycopenic Symptoms of Hypoglycemia

A

dizziness, tingling, blurred vision,
confusion, behavioral changes

151
Q

Classification of Hypoglycemia

A

Drug administration
Critical illnesses
Hormonal deficiency
Endogenous hyperinsulinism
Autoimmune hypoglycemia
Non-beta cell tumors
Hypoglycemia of infancy and childhood
Alimentary (reactive) hypoglycemia
Idiopathic

152
Q
A