2 Flashcards
(124 cards)
1
Q
Perceptual Set
A
A perceptual set is a readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way. Our experiences, expectations, and the influence of others are some of the reasons why our personal experience of the world is subjective.
In the example of the Rabbit / Duck, your perceptual set may have been influenced by first being asked to “Check out this rabbit.” You may also be influenced to see one or the other if you have a pet rabbit, or if you often see ducks on your property or in your neighborhood.
Perceptual Set (Textbook definition): a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.
True or False: A perceptual set is an example of Top-Down Processing?
2
Q
Schemas
A
A schema is a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information that we store in our memories. Our experiences create these schemas, or mental representations, of how we expect the world to be. It’s like an organized file-cabinet for understanding all of the information that we store within our brains. Schemas are what lead to the creation of our perceptual sets.
Whenever we experience something new, we interpret this information according to our current schemas and fit it in with what we already know. This process is called assimilation.
Sometimes, however, our schemas are limited and we have to adjust them to correctly make sense out of our new experiences and new information being presented to us. This would be accommodation.
An example would be that of a toddler who has a dog in his household and sees a cat for the first time and calls it “doggy.” The toddler’s schema is limited and causes him to refer to all four legged creatures with a tale as a dog or doggy. The child’s schema is adjusted–or accommodated– when he learns and recognizes that cats are different from dogs, in spite of their similarities.
3
Q
Gestalt Psychology
A
Gestalt Psychology is a school of thought that focuses on how people perceive and experience the world by emphasizing the organization and patterns of stimuli. It explores how individuals naturally organize sensory information into meaningful wholes, rather than the specific individual parts. The whole is greater than the individual parts.
Gestalt is a German word meaning “form” or “whole.”
Gestalt principles include Closure, Continuity, Figure and Ground, Proximity, Similarity, & Symmetry.
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Q
Closure
A
The mind tends to fill in incomplete shapes to perceive them as a whole.
5
Q
Continuity
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The principle of continuity states that elements that are arranged on a line or curve are perceived to be more related than elements not on the line or curve.
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Q
Figure & Ground
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This principle emphasizes the distinction between the main object (figure) and its background (ground).
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Q
Proximity
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Objects close to each other are perceived as a group.
8
Q
Similarity
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Similar elements are perceived as belonging together. (Side note: a column arranges data vertically from top to bottom, while a row arranges data horizontally from left to right.)
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Q
Symmetry
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Elements tend to be perceived as organized when balanced on either side of a central point or axis, creating a sense of harmony or balance.
10
Q
Visual Perception
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Depth Perception is the ability to see objects in three dimensions, although the images that strike the retina (movie screen) are two dimensional. This allows us to judge distance. Depth perception relies upon both Binocular Cues and Monocular Cues. Binocular cues are depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes. Binocular depth cues utilize images from each eye to give us the ability to perceive (make sense out of) depth.
Monocular Cues are depth cues, such as texture gradient or linear perspective, available to either eye on its own. These are cues that do not depend on having two eyes or using both at the same time. Monocular depth cues give the illusion of depth on flat, or two-dimensional, surfaces. Watching a movie, which is projected in two dimensions, but “seeing it” in three dimensions, is a result of monocular cues.
11
Q
The Visual Cliff Experiment
A
This experiment shows that depth perception appears to be partially innate, and developed very early on as a means of protection and survival.
12
Q
Binocular Depth Cues
A
Retinal Disparity is a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing slightly different retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance. The difference in the images that each eye sees is a result of their slightly different perspectives. The brain processes these differences to create a sense of depth or 3D perception. Disparity = Difference for this concept.
The greater the disparity between the images of the two eyes, the closer the object actually is to us.
Finger Sausage
Convergence: the inward turning of your eyes when looking at an object close to you; the closer an object the greater the convergence.Convergence cannot be used for objects greater than 25 feet from us. Retinal images converge, or are combined, by the brain!
Tip of Your Nose
13
Q
Monocular Depth Cues
A
There are a number of different monocular cues used in visual perception. These include linear perspective, relative size and relative clarity, interposition, and texture gradient.
14
Q
Linear Perspective:
A
parallel lines appear to converge in the distance.
15
Q
Relative Size:
A
objects of the same physical size appear larger when they are closer and smaller when farther away.
16
Q
Relative Clarity:
A
the concept that addresses how things that are farther away from us appear hazy or blurry, while those that are closer appear with greater detail or clarity.
17
Q
Interposition (Overlap):
A
this is when an object closer to us cuts off all or part of the view of a more distant object.
18
Q
Texture Gradient:
A
the detail of a surface appears to change with distance; closer objects show more texture.
19
Q
Perceptual Constancy
A
As images in our visual field change, our perception of an object or objects we are looking at remains the same. Due to such things as variations in light, the changing angles that we view things from, and the movement of objects, our brains are capable of understanding that the physical things we are viewing do not, themselves, change.
This can be best understood by exploring the concepts of Size Constancy, Shape Constancy, and Color Constancy.
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Q
Size Constancy
A
Size Constancy: While objects closer to us produce bigger images on our retinas, our brains take distance into account as we estimate the size of the objects. Therefore, we keep a constant size in mind for objects we are familiar with, and know that they do not grow or shrink in size as they move closer or farther away from us.
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Q
Shape Constancy
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Shape Constancy: Objects viewed from different angles produce different shapes on our retinas, yet we know that the shape of the objects themselves does not change.
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Q
Color Constancy
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Color Constancy: We perceive familiar objects as having consistent, unchanging colors, even though illumination may change.
23
Q
Motion Parallax
A
Our brain computes motion partly on its assumption that shrinking objects are retreating (moving farther away) and enlarging objects are approaching. This is known as the motion parallax.
Think of being on a train and sitting next to the window. You are facing the same direction that the train you are a passenger on is moving. As you look out the window, facing forward, you see people on the platform in the distance apparently growing in size as you get closer to them. As you speed past them and look back, they appear to be shrinking in size.
For young children, this ability is not yet fully developed. As a result, when a car is approaching and appears larger to us, they don’t pick up on it, putting themselves at risk.
24
Q
Apparent Motion
A
Adolescents and adults can sometimes be tricked or deceived, as well, with motion detection and perception, due to different forms of apparent motion.
Apparent motion is our perceiving something in motion, even when it isn’t actually moving. Examples include the Stroboscopic Effect and the Phi Phenomenon.
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Stroboscopic Effect (Stop Motion)
The Stroboscopic Effect (Movement) is an illusion of continuous movement experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images.
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The Phi Phenomenon
The Phi Phenomenon occurs when lights blink on and off in sequence, resulting in our perceiving the objects as moving, even though they are stationary.
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Cognition
all of the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, communicating, and remembering information.
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Metacognition
is our awareness and understanding of how we think; it is the conscious analysis of our thought processes. Engaging in metacognition can help us discover errors in our thought processes and problem-solving approaches.
Our thoughts are structured with concepts and prototypes.
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Concepts
are mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas or people that help us organize and understand information. Concepts make it easier for us to think and communicate. Sports, School Subjects, Fruits, and Movies are all examples of concepts.
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Prototypes
are the typical or best examples of a category that help us quickly identify and categorize new objects, ideas, or people by comparing them to this mental representation.
Your personal prototype of a ball could be a soccer ball. Your personal prototype of car could be the BMW i8.
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Side Note: What is thinking?
The American Psychological Association (APA) defines thinking as follows:
“The process of using one’s mind to consider or reason about something. It involves the mental manipulation of information to form concepts, engage in problem solving, reason, and make decisions.”
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Algorithms
are problem-solving strategies that involve a step-by-step, methodical procedures that guarantee a solution. For instance, you are about to leave your house but you can't find your phone. Instead of limiting your search to your bedroom or the living room (the areas you spend the majority of your time in), you look in every room of the house, one by one, until you find it. Math formulas in AP Calc and recipes in your International Foods class are examples of some algorithms you might use when in school. Algorithms are great for accuracy, but they can be time consuming.
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Heuristics
are simple, mental shortcuts that allow us to make judgements and solve problems quickly. They are quicker to use than algorithms, but they are often prone to errors in thought.
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Heuristics Example: Representativeness Heuristic
The Representativeness Heuristic is a mental shortcut people use to judge the likelihood of something based on how closely it matches a stereotypical example or one’s prototypical example.
An example of the RH would be if you were talking to a friend about how the librarian in town helped you choose a test prep book for AP Psychology, and she envisioned the librarian being a shorter, middle-aged woman, with graying hair and glasses, while in fact the librarian was a male in his late twenties, who was tall, had a crew cut, and was muscular.
Another example might be if your friend saw the actual librarian at a local supermarket and thought he was a member of the military, never thinking for a moment he could be a librarian.
Again, think stereotypes or personal prototypes for the RH: tall people play basketball, people from Canada love hockey, all males from Dagestan, Russia are outstanding wrestlers, AP Psychology teachers are short, bald devastatingly handsome men.
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Heuristics Example: Availability Heuristic
The Availability Heuristic is a mental shortcut used to make judgements based on how easily examples come to mind. This often leads to us overestimating the statistical likelihood of events that are recent, vivid, or emotionally charged.
An example of the AH might be when you refuse to go in the water at the local beach in the summer, because you saw a news clip of a shark sighting off the coast of that beach a few weeks before going there. You might think that the waters are infested with sharks, waiting for people to come in, when in fact their presence in that area is extremely rare, and when they are present they don’t come near the beach goers, because they are not their typical prey.
A second example might be you hearing about a scam on social media, where someone walks up to a person in a parking lot claiming that their car ran out of gas and they need some cash, but in all actuality they are just looking for money. Shortly after hearing about this scam, you actually have someone whose car ran out of gas asking you if you have some cash to help them out, but you don’t help them because you believe it is a scam.
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Availability Heuristic
This heuristic involves making judgments based on how easily examples come to mind. If something is more memorable or vivid (e.g., a recent news story), we might overestimate its frequency or likelihood.
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Representativeness Heuristic
This heuristic involves making judgments based on how similar something is to a prototype or stereotype we have in mind, often ignoring base rates or statistical reasoning.
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Influences on Decision Making: Mental Sets
Our decision making can oftentimes be influenced by prior experiences that were successful. As a result of this success, we frequently create mental sets. A mental set is a cognitive approach to solving problems and challenges with a method that has been successful for us in the past. This can often happen–using the past approach–even when a better, or more efficient method to problem solving exists. It’s like being stubborn with going back to what we know has worked for us in the past. You can also think of these as habits you develop as a result of initial success.
Example:
Imagine you always take the same route to work every day because it’s familiar and has worked well in the past. One day, there’s unexpected road construction, causing heavy delays. Instead of considering alternative routes or using a navigation app, you stick to your usual path, thinking it’s still the best option because it has been reliable before.
Your mental set—relying on the habitual route—prevents you from exploring more efficient solutions, even though the situation has changed.
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Influences on Decision Making: Framing
Framing refers to the way that information is presented to us, which can influence how we perceive and respond to the information. Framing frequently affects how people come to decisions and make judgments about information presented to them. This is very common in advertising.
An example of framing would be with a company that advertises a new dessert cake. “Our cakes contain 25% fat!” Vs. “We’ve eliminated 75% of the fat, but retained 100% of the flavor!”
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Priming
is a technique in which the introduction of one stimulus influences how people respond to a similar, or related, stimulus. Priming activates associated ideas or concepts stored in our memories.
“Don’t think about ducks!”
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Functional fixedness
is our inability to see other uses or functions for objects that are used for specific purposes.
One example would be a person seeing a brick as only being used as a building block in construction. The brick can also be used as a doorstop, a paper weight, and a means of self-defense, among other uses. A dime ($.10) can often be used as a flat-head screwdriver, and cornstarch can be used in the place of powder for personal hygiene.
42
Gambler’s Fallacy
The gambler's fallacy is the mistaken belief that the probability of a random event changes based on a previous outcome. For example, someone might believe that a red spin on the roulette wheel is more likely after a long run of black spins. It’s the expectation that something different from the current pattern is going to take place.
A more relatable GF Example: Arvin is really bored in his AP Psychology class and he starts flipping a coin to pass away the boredom. He notices that the coin has landed on heads five times in a row. Arvin turns to Aidan and exclaims, “The next flip has to be tails!” because he believes the streak of heads makes tails more likely.
This is the gambler’s fallacy because each coin flip is independent of the previous one, meaning the chances of getting heads or tails remain 50/50 every time Arvin flips the coin, no matter what happened before. A person who falls prey to the gambler’s fallacy ignores the true statistical probability of the outcome.
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Sunk-Cost Fallacy
The sunk-cost fallacy is a cognitive bias that leads people to continue investing time, money, or effort into something they've already invested in, even when it's not in their best interest.
Aidan starts watching a movie his AP Psychology teacher suggested, but realizes after 30 minutes that it’s boring and not enjoyable. Instead of stopping, he thinks, “I’ve already watched half an hour, so I might as well finish it.” (Of course, he also thinks his AP Psychology teacher makes horrible movie recommendations–but that’s besides this immediate point!)
This is an example of the sunk-cost fallacy because Aidan keeps watching the movie since he feels that he’s already “invested” time, even though stopping the movie and doing something more enjoyable would be a better choice.
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Confirmation Bias
is the tendency to notice, or seek out information that already supports our preconceptions and beliefs. We will readily accept information that confirms what we already believed, while ignoring any information that goes against (is oppositional to) them.
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Belief Perseverance
is the tendency to hold onto a belief after the basis for it has been discredited. Clear evidence exists to discredit or refute one’s belief, but the person refuses to accept the evidence.
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Key Difference Between Confirmation Bias and Belief Perseverance
Confirmation Bias happens during the process of gathering or interpreting information. It involves selective attention to evidence that supports one’s beliefs.
Belief Perseverance occurs after a belief has been disproven. It involves refusing to revise one’s belief even when faced with contradictory evidence.
In short, confirmation bias shapes how people collect evidence, while belief perseverance governs how people respond to disconfirming evidence.
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Examples of Belief Perseverance and Confirmation Bias
An example of belief perseverance would be a person who refuses to believe that smoking cigarettes causes cancer, in spite of the overwhelming evidence that it does.
Historically, the Catholic Church as an institution was guilty of this as well when Friedrich Bessel proved definitively in 1838 that the earth revolves around the sun.
People who hold strong political opinions often look to media that aligns with their views, while ignoring media that offers differing views. These people are exhibiting confirmation bias. Think positive feedback loops and echo chambers.
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Overconfidence Bias
is the tendency of people to have more confidence in their abilities or judgements than is objectively justified. This can apply to people with average and above average abilities, not just people with below average ones.
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Dunning-Kruger Effect
is the tendency for individuals with very limited knowledge or skill sets to vastly overestimate their abilities. This is due to a lack of self-awareness “The ignorance of incompetence!” Gross exaggeration of abilities coupled with a tremendous lack of self-awareness.
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Divergent Thinking
involves generating multiple solutions to an open-ended problem. Brainstorming for new ideas or thinking of various uses for a common object are examples of divergent thinking. Using a coin as a screwdriver is an example of divergent thinking, as is the shoelace solution to the third flat tire on your AP Psychology teacher’s bicycle. Explanation in 3, 2, 1…
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Convergent Thinking
is the process of narrowing down the possibilities to the single best solution. Think process of elimination and trial and error.
Yes, you can begin with divergent thinking (multiple ideas) and finish with convergent thinking (narrow the multiple ideas down to the single best one!)
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Creativity
is defined as the ability to produce ideas that are both novel (new) and valuable. Sometimes the idea can be new to the world, such as when an invention is created, or it can be new to an individual when engaged in problem solving.
According to Robert Sternberg and colleagues (Sternberg, 1988, 2003; Sternberg and Lubart, 1991, 1992), creativity is made up of the following five components:
Expertise
Imaginative Thinking Skills
A Venturesome Personality
Intrinsic Motivation
A Creative Environment
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Executive Functions
Executive functions can be defined as cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking.
The prefrontal cortex, located at the front of the brain, just behind the forehead, is the primary part of the brain that controls executive functioning.
Working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control, are different categories of executive functioning regulated by the prefrontal cortex.
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Intelligences
defined as the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations, involving a range of cognitive processes, such as reasoning, problem-solving, and understanding complex ideas.
Charles Spearman introduced the idea of a general intelligence component that individuals possessed. This was known as the G-factor (g).
The G-factor (g), or general intelligence, is a theoretical concept that suggests there is a single underlying ability which influences overall cognitive performance across various tasks and domains.
Spearman’s belief in a general intelligence was born from his research using a method known as factor analysis.
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Factor analysis
is a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items, or factors, on a test or assessment.
Factor analysis allows researchers to use correlations among traits to see which traits cluster together as factors. If a strong correlation is found among punctuality, diligence, neatness, and attention to detail, for example, one could conclude that these traits represent a common factor that we would name conscientiousness. This statistical analysis was used to comprise the HEXACO-PI-R that we took earlier in the school year.
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The Measurement of Intelligence.
One method for measuring the intelligence of an individual is the use of IQ, or the Intelligence Quotient.
IQ is a standardized score, derived from tests designed to measure a person's cognitive abilities in relation to other individuals. With this assessment, 100 is the average score for a given age group. The formula for calculating IQ is as follows: IQ = Mental Age / Chronological Age X 100. For Example: 12/10 X 100 = 120
Lewis Terman, of Stanford University, was a major proponent of the IQ. Terman built his ideas of intelligence around the earlier work of Alfred Binet, a French researcher who created standardized intelligence tests to determine which children in the French Public School system required special services. Binet proposed that children have a Mental Age, which most often corresponds with one’s chronological age. Mental age is defined as a measure of intelligence based on the average abilities of children within a certain age group; it is a measure of an individual’s cognitive abilities, expressed as the age level at which they perform intellectually, compared to their chronological age.
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Psychometrics
is the field of psychology which is devoted to assessing and measuring human behaviors and mental processes.
Psychometrics ensures that tests of intelligence are standardized, valid, and reliable.
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standardized test
is an assessment that is administered and scored in a consistent manner to ensure that results are comparable across individual groups. With standardization, large pools of data are collected from pre-tested groups of individuals that are comparable to those who will take the standardized assessments. Standardization of tests is intended to reduce biases, while producing valid, consistent (reliable) results.
Standardized tests are used to measure such things as an individual’s knowledge, skills, or abilities in a specific area. Examples include the SATs, ACTs, IQ tests and your AP exams.
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Validity
refers to a test's ability to accurately measure what it claims to measure. When looking at a test’s validity, we focus on the test’s content validity, construct validity and its predictive validity.
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Content validity
evaluates the quality of the assessment by ensuring that the questions or tasks are relevant and representative of the construct being measured. For example, a driving exam has high content validity if it covers the topics that relate to safe driving, such as parallel parking, making left and right turns, following traffic signals and signs, and driving in a safe, defensive manner.
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Construct validity
is the extent to which a test measures the concept or psychological trait it claims to assess. It’s how the test or assessment is put together (constructed) that is under scrutiny. In the driving example, if the test was on a closed course without other cars or pedestrians around, it would lack construct validity, since it does not assess safe driving in a realistic setting or environment.
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Predictive validity
looks at the extent to which a test can accurately forecast or predict future performance or behavior related to what the test measures. Examples would be the SATs or LSATs. If a person scored high on either of these exams, but failed out of college or law school because the work proved too challenging, those tests would lack predictive validity. With the driving test example, the test would lack predictive validity if a high percentage of the people who pass the exam get into accidents or are ticketed for moving violations and unsafe driving.
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Test Reliability
refers to a test’s ability to consistently produce similar results over repeated administrations of the test. Think of repeated tests revealing repeated scores. Two ways to check for a test’s reliability include the Test-Retest Method and the Split-Half Method.
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Test-Retest Method
assesses reliability by giving the same test to the same group of people at two different times and then comparing how consistent the test scores are for the people taking the assessment both times.
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Split-Half Method
assesses reliability by dividing a test into two halves, such as odd items and even items, or first part and second part, and measuring the correlation between the two different sets of scores to check for consistency.
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stereotype threat
is a phenomenon in which individuals may feel anxious and concerned that their performance will confirm negative stereotypes about their social or cultural groups. This anxiety can have a negative impact on the individual’s performance, resulting in outcomes that are not reflective of a person’s true capabilities.
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stereotype lift
occurs when one’s performance is boosted by their awareness of positive stereotypes about their social or cultural group. This awareness can potentially enhance one’s confidence and boost their outcomes on tests.
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Flynn Effect
is the observed rise in average IQ scores over time across generations. It is attributed to factors such as improved education and nutrition, as well as economic security and better access to technology and information.
When looking at variations of IQ scores, it’s important to factor in both intra-group variability and inter-group variability.
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Intra-Group Variability
is the differences in characteristics, abilities, or behaviors among individuals within the same group.
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Inter-Group Variability
is the differences in characteristics, abilities, or behaviors between different groups.
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Achievement tests
measure a person’s knowledge or proficiency in a specific subject or skill-set that has been learned. Your AP Psychology Exam and a Road Test are examples of achievement tests.
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Aptitude tests
are designed to measure a person's potential to learn or succeed in a particular area or skill. Examples of aptitude tests include the SAT, the ASVAB, and LSAT.
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fixed mindset
one believes that abilities, intelligence, and talent are traits that we are born with and cannot be significantly developed or changed.
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growth mindset
on the other hand, one believes that abilities, intelligence, and talents can be developed through effort, learning, and perseverance.
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Crystalized Intelligence
(accumulated knowledge and verbal skills) increases up to our elderly years.
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Fluid Intelligence
(reason speedily and abstractly to novel situations and problems) begins slowly declining in our late-twenties to early-thirties and up into our mid-seventies; more rapid decline starts by our mid-eighties.
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Heritability
is the percentage of a trait variation (height, intelligence, eye color, language spoken, etc.) among individuals in a group that can be attributed to genetic influence.
Heritability is measured on a scale from 0 to 1 (or sometimes as a percentage from 0% to 100%). This scale tells us how much of the variation in a trait is due to genetic differences.
0 (0%): Means that genes do not contribute at all to the differences in that trait. All variation is caused by the environment. The language you speak has a heritability of 0 because it’s entirely based on what you learn from your surroundings.
1 (100%): Means that all the differences in the trait are due to genetic differences, with no environmental influence. Eye color has a heritability close to 1 because it’s almost entirely determined by genes.
Estimates of the heritability of intelligence –the extent to which intelligence test score variation within a group can be attributed to genetic variation–range from 50 to 80%.
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Memory
is defined as the cognitive process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information, allowing us to retain and recall past experiences, knowledge, and skills.
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Encoding:
The process of converting information from the sensory world into a form that can be organized and stored in memory.
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Storage:
The retention or holding of encoded information over time.
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Retrieval
The process of getting information out of memory storage.
In the field of cognitive psychology, evidence that learning persists, or is retained, is measured through recall, recognition, and relearning.
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Recall:
is the retrieval of information learned earlier, but not in your current, conscious awareness. Fill-in-the-blank test.
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Recognition
seeing and identifying items previously learned. Multiple-choice test.
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Relearning
this relates to the amount of time it takes–and the time saved–when learning material again. Studying for your AP psychology exams after first learning the material in the lectures.
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Explicit Memory
is a type of long-term memory that involves the conscious recollection of facts, events, and experiences that can be intentionally retrieved and stated.
Explicit Memories are subdivided into Episodic Memory and Semantic Memory.
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Episodic Memory
is a type of explicit memory that involves the recall of personal experiences and specific events, including the time and place that they occurred.
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Semantic Memory
is a type of explicit memory that involves the recall of general knowledge, facts, and concepts that are not tied to specific personal experiences.
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Implicit Memory
is a type of long-term memory that involves unconscious, automatic recall of skills, habits, and learned associations without conscious effort.
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Procedural Memory
is a specific type of implicit memory that involves the recall of how to perform tasks and actions, such as riding a bicycle, tying your shoes, or typing on your computer keyboard without needing to consciously think about each step.
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Prospective Memory
is a type of long-term memory that allows us to remember to carry out future intentions or planned actions, such as remembering to take medication or attend a meeting or scheduled appointment with a physician.
Again, the three categories of memories are explicit, implicit and prospective!
Can you create an example of each category without using the specific ones provided for you?
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Brain Processing for Enhancing Memory and Learning: Long-Term Potentiation
LTP is the process by which repeated activation of synapses strengthens the connections between neurons, resulting in enhanced memory and learning.
Imagine you’re learning to play a new song on the piano. At first, it’s hard—you make mistakes, and your fingers feel clumsy. But every time you practice, the connections between your neurons involved in playing the song get stronger. Eventually, you can play the song smoothly without thinking about it.
This happens because neurons in your brain are communicating more efficiently with each other. When you repeatedly use the same neural pathways, those pathways become stronger, more efficient, and more reliable.
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The Multi-Store Model of Memory
The Multi-Store Model of Memory describes our memory system of having three different storage areas for our memories. These areas start with Sensory Memory, then proceed to Short-Term Memory (AKA Working Memory), and end with Long-Term Memory. With this model, steps must be taken to ensure that our memories are retained and end up in Long-Term storage.
To begin with, environmental stimuli enter our sensory-memory storage areas and must be consciously attended to, or they will likely be forgotten.
If we pay attention to the information that enters the sensory memory storage area, it then gets moved on to the short-term memory storage area. When information enters our short-term memory storage areas, we must encode and rehearse it to ensure that it gets transferred to our long-term memory storage area.
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Effortful Processing
is encoding that requires our focused attention and conscious efforts.
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Automatic Processing
is the unconscious encoding of information related to space, time, and frequency that occurs without interfering with our thinking about other things. This is an example of parallel processing, a natural mode of information processing that involves several information streams working simultaneously (memories from a visit to a theme park).
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Sensory Memory
holds information received from our senses for very brief moments in time. In fact, the majority of information received via sensory memory is lost. In order to retain this type of information we must use selective attention with the specific sensory stimuli we want to retain. This allows for encoding and placement into our short-term memory. This encoding can be automatic or require some degree of conscious effort.
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Iconic Memory, Echoic Memory & Semantic Memory
Sensory Memory is made up of Iconic Memory, Echoic Memory & Semantic Memory
Iconic (Visual) Memories last just under a second. (A sparkler’s trail of light)
Echoic (Auditory) Memories last for a little under four seconds. (A sudden loud noise lingering–not a literal echo; short burst of information)
Semantic Memory is the meaning of the sensory experience. Semantic memories of the sensory memory system are also fleeting (short-lived).
Pensive
ˈpensiv
Pensive (adj.): engaged in, involving, or reflecting deep or serious thought.
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Short-Term Memory (STM
is our storage area that holds a limited amount of information for around 30 seconds so we can attend to immediate tasks. In order for us to hold onto information for longer amounts of time and move it to our Long-Term Memory Stores, additional processing through rehearsal or conscious repetition is needed.
Experiments conducted by George Miller demonstrated that the capacity of short-term memory is approximately seven unrelated bits of information at one time (+/- 2). This is one reason why phone numbers in the United States are seven-digits long.
Overcoming the limitations of STM requires rehearsing (maintenance rehearsal) the new information or consciously repeating it. The more time we spend learning the new information, the more we retain it. Additional rehearsal of information is called overlearning (repeating your times tables). While rehearsal is most often verbal, it can be visual or spatial (schematic drawings/visual instructions).
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The Working Memory Model
Working Memory is divided into three subsystems: Central Executive, Phonological Loop, and Visuospatial Sketchpad.
The Central Executive System serves as the regulator of the system. It controls attention and decides what information to focus on or ignore. It doesn’t store information itself but coordinates the other subsystems. It as like a manager directing workers.
The Phonological Loop is like a “voice recorder” for sounds and spoken words. It holds sounds for a few seconds and it repeats information to keep it in memory (like saying a phone number in your head multiple times so as not to forget it). It’s used for verbal or auditory information.
The Visuospatial Sketchpad is like a mental “whiteboard” for visual and spatial information. It helps you picture things in your mind, like imagining the layout of a room or solving a puzzle.
These subsystems work together to process different types of information at the same time, helping us complete complex tasks.
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Memory Models: Levels of Processing Model
Shallow Processing involves focusing on surface level features of information, such as the appearance or sound of words, leading to weaker memory retention.
Deep Processing involves analyzing information from meaning and connections, resulting in stronger memory retention, and better recall.
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Structural Encoding
is a form of shallow processing that involves encoding information based on its physical appearance, such as the shape or structure of letters in a word.
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Phonemic Encoding
is a form of shallow processing that involves encoding information based on its sound, such as how a word is pronounced.
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Semantic Encoding
is a form of deep processing that involves encoding information based on its meaning, making it easier to remember and retrieve.
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Mnemonic Devices
are memory aids that use associations, patterns, or visual imagery to help encode and retrieve information more easily.
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Chunking
is a memory technique that involves grouping separate pieces of information into larger, more meaningful units to help aid retention. Imagine you’re trying to memorize the phone number 5164334965. Instead of trying to remember all ten digits, you chunk them in the following way: 516-433-4965.
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Categories
organize information into related groups based on similar or shared characteristics, making it easier to remember and retrieve the information. Imagine you’re trying to memorize a grocery list that includes milk, apples, chicken, sausages, carrots, yogurt, and oranges. You take the list of items and group them by the following categories:
* Dairy: milk, yogurt
* Fruits: apples, oranges
* Proteins: chicken, sausages
* Vegetables: carrots
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Hierarchies
structure information in levels of importance or specificity, such as general to specific, helping to organize complex information for better recall.
Let's say you have a number of things you have to get done on a Saturday, and you create a list based on personal importance to accomplish these tasks.
School Work: you complete your math homework and study for your AP Psychology exam.
Personal needs: you make yourself lunch, then go to the gym to workout after taking care of the school work.
Errands: you go to the supermarket to pick up some groceries for your family’s dinner that evening, after your workout.
Relaxation: you arrive home and watch an episode of your favorite series that is streaming on Netflix.
Family Time: you have dinner as a family and talk about your day and what’s in store for the evening.
Friend Time: you hangout with your friends and talk about how awesome your AP Psych teacher is and then go cruise the turnpike looking for some excitement.
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Method of Loci
is a mnemonic technique used to improve memory by associating information with specific locations in a familiar setting, such as your home or school. It is also known as the memory palace technique. The idea is to visualize a place you know well and “place” the items or concepts you want to remember at specific spots within that environment. By mentally walking through the location, you can retrieve the associated information.
Let’s use the example of a grocery list, again, to better illustrate the Method of Loci…
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The Spacing Effect (AKA Distributive Practice)
is the method of improving retention of learned information by spreading it out over time, then periodically reviewing the information, rather than cramming or massing the learning into one session.
The study and review of new information is spread out with rest periods in between the sessions. This practice also allows for quicker relearning of the material vs. cramming.
To put things into perspective with the spacing effect, instead of studying for 5 hours the night before a test, you study 1 hour a night for 5 straight nights, leading up to the test.
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The Serial Position Effect
describes the tendency to remember items at the beginning of a list (primacy effect) and at the end of a list (recency effect) better than those items in the middle of a list.. This effect is related to the way information is processed in both short-term and long-term memory.
If you create a shopping list and leave it at home, you tend to remember the starting and ending items on the list more easily than the items sandwiched in the middle.
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Overlearning
is a method of memory retention that involves the continuous study and review of information beyond the point of initial mastery. Once we have stored something in our long-term memory, we continue to engage in reinforcing activities to safeguard against forgetting the information.
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Maintenance rehearsal
is the process of continuously repeating information to keep it active in short term-memory, without adding any meaning or deeper understanding. An example of maintenance rehearsal would include repeating a phone number multiple times until you can add it to your contacts or write it down on paper.
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Elaborative rehearsal
is the process of linking new information to existing knowledge by creating associations and adding meaning, which helps encode it into long-term memory. Using the Method of Loci would be an example of elaborative rehearsal.
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Autobiographical Memory
is the recall of personal life experiences and events, integrating episodic and semantic memories to form a cohesive narrative of one’s own past.
Some people possess Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory. HSAM is a rare condition characterized by the exceptional ability to vividly recall nearly every personal experience and event from one's life in remarkable detail.
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Amnesia
is a condition characterized by the loss of memories, such as facts, information, and experiences, often caused by brain injury, disease, or psychological trauma. Amnesia can take on the form of retrograde amnesia or anterograde amnesia.
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Retrograde amnesia
is a form of amnesia in which a person cannot recall memories that have already been stored prior to the onset of this kind of amnesia. These people can, however, create new memories.
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Anterograde amnesia
is a form of amnesia in which a person is no longer capable of creating new memories. The memories formed prior to the onset of anterior grade amnesia, however, still remain intact. Damage to the hippocampus can lead to this form of amnesia.
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infantile amnesia
Infantile amnesia is the inability of adults to recall memories from early childhood, typically before the ages of 3 to 4 years, due to the underdevelopment of the brain’s memory system, especially the hippocampus, during that period of time.
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Alzheimer’s disease
is a progressive neurological disorder that leads to the gradual decline of memory, cognitive functions, and daily living abilities due to the deterioration of brain cell cells.
Symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease include memory loss, confusion, difficulty with problem-solving, disorientation, trouble with language, mood changes, and impaired judgment.
The exact causes of Alzheimer’s disease are not completely understood, but it is believed that a combination of genetic factors, abnormal buildup of proteins in the brain, age related changes, and potential environmental influences, lead to the development of this disease.
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Retrieval Cues
are prompts or hints that assist in the retrieval of information stored in memory. Retrieval cues can take various forms, such as words, sounds, smells, or even specific environments that were present during the encoding of the information. Retrieval cues prime our memories.
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Context-Dependent Memory
is the tendency to recall information more easily when in the same physical environment or context you were in when you initially learned the information you’re trying to recall. An example would be when you are in your math class, you are better able to recall a mathematical formula or concept.
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Mood-Congruent Memory
is the tendency to recall information that matches the emotional state or mood we are currently in. For instance, if a person is really happy, they are more likely to recall happy events from the past.
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State-Dependent Memory
is the tendency to recall information more readily when you’re in the same physiological or mental* state as when the information was encoded. For instance, a person may have misplaced something while under the influence of alcohol, and when under the influence again, they remember where they placed the missing item.
*While “mood” can be argued to be a “mental state,” think of emotions with mood-congruent memory (e.g., happy, sad, angry, disgusted, anxious, etc.)
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testing effect
is the phenomenon where actively recalling information through self testing or quizzes and flashcards enhances long-term retention more effectively than passive reviewing during a lecture or simply rereading material
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Metacognition
is the awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes, including the ability to monitor, regulate, and evaluate cognitive activities like learning and problem-solving. Using metacognition helps improve memory recall by actively monitoring one’s own learning processes and styles, setting goals and actively working towards them, and using other effective strategies that you know work better than ones that are not as effective.
