3 Flashcards
(121 cards)
1
Q
Developmental Psychology
A
is the branch of psychology dedicated to the study of physical, cognitive, and social changes throughout the lifespan. Developmental psychology is concerned with both chronological order of development and /or thematic issues in development across the lifespan.
2
Q
Temperament
A
Research suggests that certain temperamental traits, such as introversion/extroversion or emotional reactivity, tend to be relatively stable throughout a person’s life. A child who is shy and cautious may likely exhibit similar tendencies in adulthood.
3
Q
Intelligence
A
While specific cognitive abilities may fluctuate, general intelligence, as measured by IQ tests, often demonstrates considerable stability from childhood through adulthood.
4
Q
Attachment Style
A
Early attachment patterns formed in infancy can influence relationships and social interactions later in life. Individuals who had secure attachments in childhood are more likely to form healthy, stable relationships as adults.
5
Q
Physical Development
A
Physical changes are a clear example of development. Puberty brings significant hormonal and bodily changes during adolescence, while aging leads to physical decline in later adulthood.
6
Q
Cognitive Development
A
Cognitive abilities, such as language, memory, and problem-solving, undergo substantial changes throughout the lifespan. Children’s thinking becomes more logical and abstract as they progress through Piaget’s stages, and cognitive functions may decline in old age.
7
Q
Motor Development
A
the progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities. Basic motor skills include grasping, reaching for and manipulating objects, sitting-up, crawling, walking and running.
8
Q
Maturation
A
the gradual unfolding and development of one’s genetic (biological) blueprint. These are the naturally occurring physical changes that take place as one ages.
9
Q
Developmental Norms
A
these indicate the typical (median) age at which a child or individual displays various behaviors and abilities. Sometimes referred to as milestones of development.
10
Q
Temperament
A
characteristic mood and emotional reactivity; personal drive. (Genetic / Biological & Enduring / Stable)
11
Q
Attachment
A
the development of close, emotional bonds between an infant and caregiver(s).
12
Q
Imprinting
A
the process by which certain animals form attachments during critical periods of development, early in life. (Ethology: The study of animal behavior.)
13
Q
Critical Period
A
an optimal period when certain events must take place to facilitate proper development. 6-8 months of age to 18-24 months of age are considered critical periods for children to develop secure attachments with their caregivers.
14
Q
Separation Anxiety
A
the emotional distress exhibited by infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment.
15
Q
Stranger Anxiety
A
the fear of strangers that children commonly display, emerging around 6 to 9 months of age. SA tends to diminish between 2 and 3, as children become more comfortable with different people & environments.
16
Q
Stage
A
this is a developmental period during which characteristic patterns of behavior are exhibited and certain capacities become established (Puberty and the ability to reproduce).
17
Q
Cognitive Development
A
the transitions in a child’s or young adult’s patterns of thinking. This includes reasoning, remembering, and problem solving.
18
Q
Teratogens
A
are agents such as chemicals and viruses that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. Alcohol, nicotine, cocaine and marijuana are some common teratogens that should be avoided by a woman during pregnancy.
19
Q
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
A
is a serious disorder caused by heavy alcohol consumption during pregnancy. FAS leads to both physical and cognitive deficits.
20
Q
Maternal Illnesses
A
infections or diseases contracted by a mother during pregnancy that can affect fetal development, potentially leading to serious birth defects, and other health issues.
21
Q
Hormonal Factors
A
hormones in the womb that influenced the development of the fetus‘s brain and body, including imbalances and thyroid hormones or exposure to stress hormones like cortisol.
22
Q
Environmental Factors
A
external influences in addition to teratogens can include the mother’s nutrition and other toxins in the environment that she may be exposed to during pregnancy.
23
Q
Mercury
A
exposure during pregnancy can cause developmental delays, neurological problems, and brain damage.
24
Q
Longitudinal Studies
A
researchers repeatedly examine the same individuals to detect any changes that might occur over a period of time. This is an example of a correlational study.
25
Cross-Sectional Research
esigns are used to examine behavior and cognitive functioning in participants of different ages who are tested at the same point in time. For example: testing the fluid intelligence levels of groups of people in their late teens and early twenties; thirties to forties, and over fifty. Results are compared to see how each group performs, relative to the others.
26
The Cohort Effect
is an important concept to be aware of when engaging in cross-sectional research. Cohorts, or groups of people sharing a common characteristic, can sometimes show differences when being studied that may have little to do with age, but much to do with the times in which those being studied were raised.
For instance, when comparing smartphone use among different age groups, a large discrepancy in the time spent with those devices between teens and an elderly population may be attributed to the fact that the older generation was raised without these devices and do not view them to be as important or necessary compared to the teens who were born into a world in which this technology already exists. Rather than being a result of age differences, the results are more likely a reflection of the times each group was born and raised, and their views on necessity for the technology.
Ultimately, a cohort may have a unique set of experiences that shape their views and behaviors, while another cohort may have a very different set of experiences that shape their respective views and behaviors.
27
Fine motor skills
involve the use of small muscles, particularly in the hands and fingers, for precise movements. Examples include:
Writing or typing
Buttoning a shirt
Picking up small objects
28
Gross motor skills
on the other hand, involve the use of larger muscles for broader movements. Examples include:
Walking or running
Jumping
Throwing a ball
Both types of skills are crucial for daily activities, but they serve different purposes and develop at different stages of a person's life. For instance, a baby typically develops gross motor skills, such as crawling and walking, before fine motor skills like grasping objects or drawing.
29
Innate (Primitive) Reflexes
are automatic responses that newborns have, which help them survive and develop.
30
Rooting Reflex
When the corner of a baby's mouth is stroked or touched, the baby will turn their head and open their mouth to "root" for the object. This helps the baby find the breast or bottle to start feeding.
31
Sucking Reflex
When the roof of a baby's mouth is touched, the baby will begin to suck. This reflex is vital for feeding.
32
Moro Reflex (Startle Reflex)
When a baby is startled by a loud sound or sudden movement, they will throw back their head, extend their arms and legs, cry, then pull the arms and legs back in. This reflex helps the baby cling to the mother.
33
Palmar Grasp Reflex
When you stroke the palm of a baby's hand, the baby will close their fingers in a grasp. This reflex helps in bonding and securing the baby to the caregiver.
34
Plantar Grasp Reflex
Similar to the palmar grasp, but occurs when the sole of the baby's foot is stroked, causing the toes to curl.
35
Sensitive Period Hypothesis
in developmental psychology suggests that there are specific times in an individual's life when they are more receptive to certain types of learning and development. During these periods, the brain is especially plastic and able to acquire new skills or knowledge more efficiently than at other times.
For example, learning a language is often much easier for children than adults because they are in a sensitive period for language acquisition. Similarly, early childhood is a sensitive period for developing social skills, emotional regulation, and motor abilities.
These periods are not rigid or exclusive; development can still occur outside of these windows, but it may require more effort and may not be as easily attained. The concept of sensitive periods helps us understand the importance of early experiences and the timing of interventions in areas like education and therapy.
36
Sensitive Vs. Critical
Feature
Critical
Sensitive
Definition
Essential Time Window for Development
Optimal Time Window for Development
Flexibility
Rigid
Flexible
Outcome if Missed
Skills may not develop normally
Skills can still develop, but less efficiently
Example
Language acquisition in early childhood
Learning to play a musical instrument
37
Puberty
is the stage of biological development during which adolescents undergo physical, hormonal, and sexual maturation, leading to reproductive capability and significant changes in body structure and function.
38
Menarche
refers to a girl's first menstrual period, marking the beginning of menstruation
39
spermarche
refers to a boy's first ejaculation, signifying the onset of sperm production and the start of male sexual maturity.
40
adolescent growth spurt
is very common. This stage is marked by a rapid increase in height and weight, driven by hormonal changes, marking one of the most significant growth periods since infancy.
41
Primary sex characteristics
the body structures directly involved in reproduction, including the ovaries, testes, and external genitalia, develop and mature.
42
Secondary sex characteristics
the physical traits that differentiate males and females, but are not directly involved in reproduction, such as body hair, breast development, broadening of shoulders (males) and hips (females) and voice changes, take place.
43
Adulthood
Adulthood spans most of the lifespan and is characterized by a general leveling off, and then a varying decline, in reproductive ability (menopause in women), mobility, flexibility, reaction time, and visual and auditory sensory acuity.
44
Object Permanence
the realization that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible.
45
Irreversibility
the inability to envision reversing an action.
46
Conservation
the awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance.
47
Centration
the tendency to focus on one aspect of a problem, while overlooking other important aspects.
48
Egocentrism
thinking is characterized by an inability to share another’s point of view or perspective.
49
Theory of Mind
around the age of four, children begin to understand that others have different perceptions, feelings and desires from their own.
50
Animism
the belief that all things are living.
51
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Stage 1: Sensorimotor Period (Birth - 2 Years Old)
Stage 2: Preoperational Period (2-7)
Stage 3: Concrete Operational Period (7-11)
Stage 4: Formal Operational Period (11 on)
52
The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development (Birth - 2 Years)
Babies / Toddlers learn about the world around them through their senses and actions (looking, hearing, touching, crawling / walking, grasping, mouthing, sucking…)
Newborns live in the present and lack object permanence (if something is not in view, it no longer exists)
Object permanence begins at about 8 months. Objects exist, whether they are visible or not. (Current research and evidence suggests that this begins as early as 4 months for some babies.)
53
The Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development (2 - 7 Years)
Egocentric in nature (challenging to view things through another’s perspective). Symbolic thought (using a stick as a sword) and language recognition begin to develop (environmental print: Golden Arches = McDonalds)
Cognition is characterized by irreversibility, centration, and egocentrism. Conservation does not exist in this stage. Theory of Mind develops in this stage. ToM is the ability for children to understand that other people have thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives that are different from their own.
Hierarchical classification is not yet realized (5 Carnations + 3 Roses = 8 Flowers is a challenging concept to grasp)
54
Concrete Operational Period of Cognitive Development
7 - 11 Years
Termed concrete because children at this stage can only perform mental operations related to tangible objects and actual events. Abstract thoughts (hypothetical “What Ifs”, philosophical concepts such as justice and morality, metaphorical language, etc.) aren’t yet possible to comprehend at this stage.
Conservation is gradually mastered at this stage, while egocentrism declines.
Organizing / sorting / classification / seriation begins in this stage. Seriation is the ability to arrange objects in order based on a specific characteristic, such as size, length, or weight.
Mathematical understanding develops.
55
Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development
12 + Years
Abstract thoughts and concepts are possible at this stage.
The ability to find similarities and differences between and among different thoughts / objects/ concepts develops.
The nature of cognitive development ends with this stage, but the depth and breadth of knowledge continues to develop.
There is no reversal in cognitive stage development once a previous stage is mastered!
56
Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD), which refers to the gap between what a child can do independently and what they can do with assistance. The most effective learning occurs when individuals operate within their ZPD.
57
Important!!
Scaffolding or temporary support is provided to assist the learner, not to do the task for the learner.
58
private speech
(talking to themselves) during tasks. He argued that this self-talk plays a crucial role in cognitive development, serving as a way for children to regulate and guide their own thinking. It’s talking one’s self through problem solving and not a conversation or dialogue!
59
Piaget Vs. Vygotsky
Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social interaction and cultural context in cognitive development. He believed that children learn through interactions with more knowledgeable others (like parents, teachers, and peers) and that these interactions help them acquire cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies.
Vygotsky believed that cognitive development is shaped by culture, language and the interactions with–and influences of–others.
Piaget focused more on individual discovery and exploration. He believed that children learn by interacting with their environment and that cognitive development is driven by the child's own active exploration and experimentation.
Piaget believed that cognitive development was universal, regardless of culture or language.
Some indigenous cultures throughout the world lack language for numbers or specific quantities, thus making it impossible for someone to place 10 apples in a one pile and 15 oranges in another.
60
Language
is defined as a shared, complex system of communication that involves using symbols, sounds, and rules to convey and understand thoughts, emotions, and information.
Language is considered to be arbitrary, meaning that it is based upon choice. This helps explain why there are so many different languages throughout the world.
61
The Constructs of Language
Language is made up of the following constructs:
Phonemes
Morphemes
Semantics
Grammar
Syntax
62
Phonemes
The smallest units of sound in a language.
Example: In English, the individual sounds that make up the word bat are phonemes. The phonetic spelling is /b/ /æ/ /t/.
63
Morphemes
The smallest units of meaning in a language. They can be whole words or parts of words, like prefixes or suffixes.
Example: The word “unhappiness” has three morphemes: “un-” (meaning “not”), “happy” (the root word), and “-ness” (indicating a state, condition, or quality).
64
Semantics
The study of meanings in language, including the meanings of words, phrases, and sentences.
Example: The word “star” can mean a celestial object in the sky or a famous person, depending on the context.
65
Grammar
The set of rules that govern how words and sentences are structured in a language. It includes rules for sentence structure, verb tense, and punctuation.
Example: In English, the sentence “She runs fast” is grammatically correct, while “She run fast” is not.
66
Syntax
The specific rules for arranging words and phrases properly to create meaningful sentences in a language.
Example: In English, the sentence “I ate the apple” is correct syntax, but “Ate the apple I” is incorrect.
67
Cooing
This is the stage in a baby’s language development (around 6 to 8 weeks old) when they make vowel-like sounds, such as “ooo” or “ahhh.” It’s their first way of practicing sounds and starting to communicate.
68
Babbling
Around 4 to 6 months, babies start combining vowel and consonant sounds like “ba-ba” or “da-da.” These sounds don’t form real words yet, but they help babies learn how to use their vocal cords and mouth to create speech.
69
One-Word (Holophrastic) Stage
This occurs around the age of 12 months when babies begin to say single words, like “mama” or “ball,” to represent entire ideas or requests. For example, saying “milk” might mean “I want milk.”
70
Telegraphic Speech
At around 18 to 24 months, toddlers begin to put two or three words together to form simple sentences, such as “want cookie” or “go park.” These sentences leave out smaller words and rules of grammar but still convey meaning, much like a telegram.
71
Overgeneralization
refers to the tendency of children to apply a grammatical rule too broadly. Through conscious consideration, children will begin learning rules of grammar and apply them in all situations as they first learn them.
Some examples would include when a child says that they “goed” to a store instead of “went,” or “eated” an apple rather than “ate” an apple.
Overgeneralization demonstrates that children are actively thinking about the constructs of language and not simply “parroting” what they hear from others.
Overgeneralization is both normal and expected in the process of developing spoken language.
72
Topic 3.6: Social-Emotional
Development Across
the Lifespan
The ecological systems theory explores how the social environment influences development. The five systems in this theory are as follows:
Microsystem (groups that have direct contact with the individual)
Mesosystem (the relationships between groups in the microsystem)
Exosystem (indirect factors in an individual’s life)
Macrosystem (cultural events that affect the individuals and others around them)
Chronosystem (the individual’s current stage of life).
73
Attachment
is the emotional bond between an infant (or young animal) and its caregiver(s). The types of attachment infants and children display include secure and insecure (avoidant, anxious,and disorganized). Temperament is a term that describes children's emotional reactivity, how they attach to caregivers, and how easily they adapt to situations. Separation anxiety occurs when children express heightened anxiety or fear when away from a caregiver or in the presence of a stranger.
74
Secure Attachment
is the most desirable form of attachment. This is where infants feel comfortable exploring their environments with their caregivers present. The children become visibly upset when their caregivers leave their presences, but quickly calm upon the return of their caregivers. This indicates the caregivers are responsive to the needs of the infants and offer a secure base from which they can and will explore their surrounding environments.
75
Insecure Avoidant Attachment
occurs when caregivers are emotionally distant and unresponsive to the needs of the children. Children display little distress when their caregivers leave, and avoid them upon their return. The children appear indifferent to the presence of the caregivers. The children will explore the environment when the caregivers leave, yet not go to them upon reunification.
76
Insecure Anxious Attachment
occurs when caregivers are inconsistent with their responses to children’s needs. The children are anxious and clingy in the presence of their caregivers, get very upset when they leave, and have a great deal of difficulty settling down after separation from and reunion with them. The children will cling to their caregivers upon reunification.
77
Insecure Disorganized Attachment
this also occurs as a result of inconsistent responsiveness or abusiveness on the part of the primary caregivers. In this case, children often exhibit confusing and contradictory behaviors, particularly in the presence of their primary caregivers. They may seek comfort and closeness from their caregivers, but then suddenly pull away or resist contact. They may also appear fearful or wary of their caregivers, especially when the caregivers approach or try to comfort them.
78
Tactile Comfort
such as affectionate touch, stimulates the release of oxytocin in both caregivers and children. Oxytocin, often referred to as the "love hormone," plays a crucial role in bonding and emotional regulation.
79
Parenting Styles
Authoritative
(The rules are clear and there are consequences for breaking them. Do you have a valid reason as to why you broke them?) Parents balance warmth and control, leading to positive social development in children. Compassion and dialogue are present, but there are clear boundaries and consequences for undesirable actions and behaviors.
80
Parenting Styles
Authoritarian
(Because I said so!) Parents are strict with low warmth, potentially resulting in lower social competence and self esteem.
81
Parenting Styles
Permissive Indulgent
(Whatever makes you happy!) Parents are indulgent but undemanding, possibly leading to impulsiveness in children and an inability to respect boundaries.
82
Parenting Styles
Permissive Indifferent / Neglectful
(Were you saying something? Don’t bother me!) This style is characterized by low levels of both responsiveness and demandingness, resulting in limited emotional involvement and attention to a child's needs. Potential for poor academic and social outcomes as a result of this parenting style.
83
personal fable
involves adolescents' belief that they are unique and exceptional, often leading to a sense of invulnerability. Adolescents with a personal fable may think that they are immune to common dangers or consequences that others face. This mindset can contribute to risky behaviors, as they may underestimate the potential negative outcomes due to their perceived uniqueness.
Additionally, since the frontal lobe of the brain is still developing during this period and executive functioning is not yet mastered, the adolescent may have difficulties understanding risks and thinking about long-term effects or consequences.
84
Executive Functioning
refers to the mental processes related to planning, organizing, initiating tasks, analyzing risk, regulating emotions, and shifting between activities. The prefrontal cortex, particularly its frontal lobes, plays a crucial role in these functions, helping to coordinate and control various cognitive processes essential for goal-directed behavior and decision-making.
85
adolescent egocentrism
whereby the teen thinks they are the center of other’s attention, while being surrounded by the Imaginary Audience.
86
Personality
refers to the enduring characteristics and behavior that comprise a person’s unique adjustment to life, including major traits, interests, drives, values, self-concept, abilities, and emotional patterns.
87
Virtues
are strengths of character or positive qualities that emerge from successfully resolving the psychosocial crisis at each stage. It's a characteristic that helps individuals navigate future challenges and contribute to their overall well-being.
88
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
Birth to 18 months (Infancy)
The conflict is between the child's need for comfort and the uncertainty of the world.
If needs are met (fed, clothed, protected), the world is a trusting place
If needs are not met, the world is one of mistrust
The goal is to develop trust
Trust develops the virtue of Hope
89
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame
18 months - 3 years (Early Childhood)
The conflict is between the child's desire for independence and the need for guidance.
Establishing a sense of independence and becoming less reliant upon others. “I can do it myself” (feeding / dressing / toilet training)
Encouragement and support leads to confidence and security
The virtue developed is Will, the ability to make choices and decisions with confidence and a sense of self-control.
90
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
3 - 5 years old (Play Age / Preschool)
The conflict is between the child's desire to explore and initiate activities and the fear of punishment.
Children develop a sense of purpose through initiating play and exploration
Encouragement is key; do not demoralize or make the child feel guilty
An abundance of “Why..” questions are asked
Self concept of good or bad is developed
The virtue developed is Purpose, the ability to set goals and take initiative to achieve them.
91
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
5 to 13 years of age (elementary-school age / prepubescent)
The conflict is between the child's desire to learn and achieve (to be industrious / hard working and competent) and the fear of being unsuccessful and inferior to peers.
School and social interactions are prominent influences on development, and encouragement from parents and teachers to succeed in school and relationships is paramount.
Building relationships, completing complex tasks, and being successful in school help build the child’s self-concept in a positive way. The virtue of competence is developed.
92
Stage 5: Identity Vs. Confusion
13 to 21 (adolescence)
The conflict is between the adolescent's struggle for independence and the need for social acceptance.
Who am I? Vs. Who does the world think I am or expect me to be?
One strives to build a clear self-identity.
This stage is marked by a lot of experimentation with hobbies and relationships / peer groups.
A greater sense of independence and pulling away from the family unit talkies place.
Fidelity (Faithfulness) is the virtue developed.
93
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
21 - 39 Years of Age (young adulthood)
The conflict is between the young adult's desire for intimacy and connection with others and the fear of rejection.
It is a period of establishing lasting, intimate relationships.
Intimacy does not necessarily equate to physical intimacy.
Avoiding intimacy and fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression.
Successful development in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.
94
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation / Self-Absorption
40 - 65 Years of Age (middle adulthood)
The conflict is between the adult's need to contribute to society and the fear of not making a difference.
The stage where we give back to society (bigger picture).
One raises children, becomes productive through work, and volunteers their time and efforts with community organizations for the betterment of others.
By failing to find a way to contribute, one becomes stagnant and feels unproductive; one may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole.
The virtue developed is care
95
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
65 and Over (late adulthood)
This is a time of reflection to determine if we are content with what we have done with our lives.
Were we productive? Did we live our best lives?
Are we filled with a feeling of despair or guilt? Were we unproductive in our work and relationships? Were our lives ones of unfulfilled promise?
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on his / her life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.*
*Feelings of Integrity and Despair will often fluctuate during this period.
96
Classical Conditioning
(Pavlovian Conditioning) focuses on Reflexive Behaviors. Reflexive behaviors are those that are not under one’s voluntary control. (Autonomic Functions / Autonomic Division of The Peripheral Nervous System)
The original or Unconditioned Stimulus (US) requires no conditioning or training to elicit a response.
The Unconditioned Stimulus leads to an Unconditioned Response (UR).
The Unconditioned Response is an unlearned (reflexive / automatic) reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning.
The Neutral (new) Stimulus (NS) is paired with the unconditioned stimulus, repeatedly, to eventually elicit the same response. Acquisition is when the NS begins to lead to a CR. At that point, the NS becomes the Conditioned Stimulus (CS).
When the Neutral Stimulus elicits the same response as the Unconditioned Stimulus, the response is now a Conditioned Response (CR). The Neutral Stimulus is now known as a Conditioned Stimulus (CS).
Conditioning is the key that leads to the transformation of a Neutral Stimulus to a Conditioned Stimulus; think of conditioning as training.
97
Acquisition
Pavlov termed the process of learning a conditioned response acquisition. In this process, the neutral stimulus (bell) becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus (food), resulting in the conditioned response (salivation). The neutral stimulus has acquired the ability to elicit the conditioned response. For the most rapid acquisition of a conditioned response (CR), the conditioned stimulus (CS) should be presented shortly before the unconditioned stimulus (US).
98
Stimulus Generalization
Once an organism has learned to respond to a specific conditioned stimulus, it may also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus. This process is known as generalization.
99
Stimulus Discrimination
Discrimination refers to an organism's ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that are similar but do not elicit the conditioned response. For example, a dog may learn to salivate to the sound of a specific bell but not to other similar bells.
100
Extinction
If the conditioned stimulus (bell) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (food), the conditioned response (salivation) will eventually disappear. This process is known as extinction.
101
Spontaneous Recovery
After a period of time has elapsed since extinction, the conditioned response (salivation) may reappear in response to the conditioned stimulus (bell). This process is known as spontaneous recovery.
102
Second-Order (Higher-Order) Conditioning
A neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with a conditioned stimulus (CS) to produce a conditioned response (CR) to the neutral stimulus (NS). NS (Flashing Light) + CS (Bell) = CR (Salivation). Once acquisition takes place, the new CS (Flashing Light) = CR (Salivation).
103
Law of Effect
The law of effect states that responses followed by a satisfying consequence become more likely to recur, while responses followed by discomforting consequences become less likely to recur.
104
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning is a form of learning based upon the idea that voluntary responses are controlled by their consequences (reinforcement and punishment).
Consequences can be either positive (adding something) or negative (taking something away).
Classical Conditioning regulates reflexive, involuntary responses, while Operant Conditioning regulates voluntary responses.
Skinner believed that organisms behaved and acted in natural, organic ways, until a stimulus is introduced that changes behavior.
The Skinner Box / Operant Chamber was created to test this hypothesis.
He demonstrated that organisms tend to repeat responses that are followed by favorable consequences.
This resulted in the concepts of Reinforcement & Punishment. The main difference between reinforcement and punishment is that reinforcement makes a target behavior more likely to happen again while punishment makes the behavior less likely to happen again.
105
Shaping
is an operant conditioning technique in which reinforcers guide behaviors towards closer and closer (successive), approximations of the desired behavior.
Step 1. If the rat in the Skinnerbox moves within half the distance of the lever, a food pallet is produced.
Step 2. The rat now needs to come in closer contact with the lever in order to receive the food.
Step3. The rat needs to physically come in contact with the lever in order to receive the food.
Step 4. The rat must push the lever in order to receive the food pellet.
106
Primary Reinforcers
are things themselves that we find satisfying. They are innately reinforcing stimuli, particularly those things that satisfy biological needs.
Examples of primary reinforcers include food, water, shelter, sex, and social approval.
107
Conditioned Reinforcers
are stimuli that acquire reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer. Conditioned reinforcers are also known as secondary reinforcers.
An example would be the lever that the rat pushes in the Skinnerbox producing the food
108
discriminative stimulus
The lever in the Skinner Box is also known as a discriminative stimulus. The discriminative stimulus elicits a response after association with reinforcement.
The rat, after shaping and reinforcement, knows, or discriminates, that the lever differs from other stimuli in that pushing it will produce the food, while interacting with other stimuli, will not produce the food.
109
token economy
tokens act as secondary reinforcers earned for desirable behaviors. These tokens can be exchanged for primary reinforcers or other valued rewards. This system is often used in therapeutic settings, educational environments, or institutional settings to encourage positive behavior by reinforcing it with a token that can later be exchanged for something meaningful or pleasurable. The tokens serve as a bridge between the behavior and the ultimate reward, facilitating the learning and reinforcement process.
In a classroom, teachers can reward students for demonstrating desired behaviors through earning a token or a chip. The tokens are then exchanged for something like a free homework assignment.
110
Reinforcement Schedule
is a pattern that defines how often a desired response is being reinforced.
111
Continuous Reinforcement
is when a desired response is reinforced every time it occurs. Continuous reinforcement tends to lead to extinction very quickly, when reinforcement is absent or inconsistent.
112
Intermittent Reinforcement
happens when a desired response is only occasionally reinforced. This leads to slower acquisition of a desired response, but creates much greater resistance to extinction compared to continuous reinforcement schedules.
113
Examples of Reinforcement Schedules: Ratios
Fixed-Ratio Schedules: reinforcement takes place after a specific number of responses.
Punch cards at a restaurant. If you eat here 10 times, the 11th meal is free.
For every 10 cars sold, a sales representative will receive a $1000 bonus from the auto dealership.
Variable-Ratio Schedules: schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
Slot machines at casinos
Scratch off lottery tickets
Variable-ratio schedules produce higher rates of responding, as compared to fixed-ratio schedules, because reinforcers increase as the number of responses increases. This is the driving force behind gambling and games of “chance.”
114
Examples of Reinforcement Schedules: Intervals
Fixed – Interval Schedules: reinforce responses after a specific, or fixed, amount of time.
-A person gets paid at work every two weeks.
Variable – Interval Schedules: desired responses are reinforced on varying, unpredictable time intervals.
-Secret shoppers who come to stores to evaluate employees overall performance.
-Pop quizzes at school.
In general, response rates are higher, when reinforcement is linked to the number of responses (ratio schedules) rather than being linked to time (interval schedules).
Overall responding, however, is more consistent when reinforcement is unpredictable (variable schedule) then when it is predictable (fixed schedule)
Skinner concluded that variable – ratio schedules were most effective, overall, in reinforcing and maintaining desired behaviors.
115
Instinctive Drift
when animals revert back to their biologically predisposed patterns of behavior after conditioning. Sometimes the lack of reinforcement would lead to this, other times conditioning did not stick for much time at all, even with constant reinforcement. Additionally, if a behavior is simply too unnatural, they may never be able to learn it.
116
Albert Bandura & Observational Learning
Observational Learning: a way of acquiring knowledge, learning skills and adopting behaviors by watching others (nurture / environment). Modeling is having someone explicitly demonstrate expected behaviors.
Vicarious Reinforcement /Learning: learning by observing the consequences of another’s actions. Individuals may imitate behaviors that are rewarded (reinforced), even if they are not being rewarded themselves.
Albert Bandura & The Bobo Doll Experiments
During the 1960s, Albert Bandura conducted a series of experiments on observational learning, collectively known as the Bobo Doll Experiments.In these studies, children observed adults behaving aggressively toward an inflatable “Bobo” doll, and were then placed in a room with the same doll. The key findings showed that children who witnessed aggressive models were more likely to imitate the aggressive behavior, suggesting that observational learning plays a significant role in shaping behavior.
These findings may explain why many neglectful or abusive parents report having been neglected or abused in their childhoods. (Correlation is not Causation!)
117
Observational Learning
This is the process of learning by watching the behaviors of others. It involves cognitive such as attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. It's learning through observation. This is a broad category encompassing any learning that is the result of watching another person or group of people. This is the learning part.
118
Modeling
is the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior demonstrated by a model, such as a teacher, coach or instructor. The model can be an actual person who is present with the learner, such as a parent, teacher, friend, or a demonstrator in an instructional video or manual. This is the demonstration part.
119
Vicarious learning
occurs when we learn from the consequences of others' actions. We observe how others are rewarded or punished for their behaviors, and this influences our own behavior.
120
Vicarious reinforcement
means that we are more likely to repeat a behavior if we see someone else being rewarded for it.
121
Vicarious punishment
means we are less likely to repeat a behavior if we see someone else being punished for it.
