MIDTERM

Question 1

Experimentation

Answer 1

a research method used to determine cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating variables and observing outcomes.

Question 2

Random Assignment

Answer 2

the process of randomly placing participants into different groups (like the experimental group or control group) to ensure that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group. This helps eliminate bias and makes the groups similar, so any differences in outcomes can be attributed to the treatment or condition being tested.

Question 3

Independent variables

Answer 3

the factor in an experiment that is deliberately changed or manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable. It’s what you, as the experimenter, control in order to test its impact. For example, in a study on how sleep affects test scores, the independent variable would be the amount of sleep participants get.

Question 4

Dependent variables

Answer 4

the factor in an experiment that is measured or observed to see how it is affected by changes in the independent variable. It depends on what happens to the independent variable. For example, in a study on how sleep affects test scores, the dependent variable would be the test scores, since they depend on the amount of sleep participants get.

Question 5

Control Group

Answer 5

the group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or manipulation that the experimental group does. It is used for comparison to see if the treatment has an effect. For example, in an experiment testing a new drug, the control group might receive a placebo (a harmless substance) instead of the actual drug, so researchers can compare the results to the experimental group that receives the real drug.

Question 6

Experimental Group

Answer 6

the group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation being tested. This group is compared to the control group to see if the treatment has any effect. For example, in a study testing a new medication, the experimental group would receive the actual medication, while the control group would receive a placebo.

Question 7

Single-Blind Studies / Procedures

Answer 7

a research procedure in which the participants do not know whether they are receiving the experimental treatment or a placebo. This helps reduce bias in the participants’ responses, as they are unaware of the condition they are in. However, the researchers conducting the study do know which participants are in the experimental or control group.

Question 8

Double-Blind Studies / Procedures

Answer 8

a research procedure where both the participants and the researchers do not know which participants are receiving the experimental treatment and which are receiving a placebo. This helps eliminate both participant and researcher biases, ensuring more reliable results. It is considered one of the most rigorous methods for testing treatments or interventions.

Question 9

Operational Definition

Answer 9

a clear, specific description of how a variable will be measured or manipulated in a study. It allows researchers to define abstract concepts (like “happiness” or “intelligence”) in practical, measurable terms. For example, if studying “stress,” an operational definition might be the number of times a participant’s heart rate exceeds a certain level during a stressful task.

Question 10

Z score

Answer 10

a statistical measure that describes how many standard deviations a data point is from the mean of a set of data.
A Z score of 0 means the data point is exactly at the mean.
A positive Z score means the data point is above the mean.
A negative Z score means the data point is below the mean.
It helps to understand how unusual or typical a specific value is within a distribution.

Question 11

r score

Answer 11

measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. It ranges from -1 to 1:
r = 1 means a perfect positive correlation (as one variable increases, the other increases).
r = -1 means a perfect negative correlation (as one variable increases, the other decreases).
r = 0 means no correlation (no relationship between the variables).
The closer the r value is to 1 or -1, the stronger the relationship between the two variables.

Question 12

Neuron

Answer 12

a nerve cell that transmits information throughout the body

Question 13

Cell Body (Soma)

Answer 13

Contains the nucleus and other organelles. It is responsible for maintaining the cell’s health and integrating incoming signals.

Question 14

Dendrites

Answer 14

Branch-like structures that receive signals from other neurons and send them to the cell body.

Question 15

Axon

Answer 15

A long, thin extension that transmits electrical signals away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands

Question 16

Myelin Sheath

Answer 16

A fatty layer surrounding the axon that speeds up the transmission of electrical impulses. It also protects the axon.

Question 17

Axon Terminals

Answer 17

The endings of the axon that release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons or target cells.

Question 18

myelin sheath gaps

Answer 18

Gaps in the myelin sheath that help speed up the transmission of electrical signals through a process called saltatory conduction.

Question 19

Action Potential

Answer 19

an electrical signal that travels along the axon of a neuron. It is how neurons communicate with each other and send messages throughout the body.

Question 19

Synapse

Answer 19

The gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another neuron. Neurotransmitters cross this gap to send signals between neurons.

Question 20

Resting Potential

Answer 20

The neuron returns to its resting potential and is ready to fire again.

Question 21

Firing

Answer 21

the process in which a neuron generates and transmits an electrical signal called an action potential.

Question 21

Refractory period

Answer 21

the time after a neuron fires an action potential during which it cannot immediately fire again.

Question 22

Neurotransmitters

Answer 22

chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse (the gap between neurons) to communicate with other neurons, muscles, or glands. They play a crucial role in how the nervous system functions.

Question 23

Endorphins

Answer 23

neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and mood enhancers in the brain. They are often released in response to pain, stress, or physical exercise.

Question 24

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

Answer 24

a small cluster of cells located in the hypothalamus of the brain. It is considered the body's master clock because it helps regulate the circadian rhythm — the 24-hour cycle of physical, mental, and behavioral changes that respond to light and dark.

Question 25

Medulla

Answer 25

a part of the brainstem located just above the spinal cord. It plays a crucial role in regulating essential autonomic functions, meaning functions that happen automatically without conscious control.

Question 26

Glial Cells

Answer 26

support cells in the nervous system that help nourish, protect, and maintain neurons. They also assist with waste removal and help speed up signal transmission by creating myelin.

Question 27

Afferent Neurons

Answer 27

also known as sensory neurons, carry sensory information from the body’s tissues and organs to the brain and spinal cord. They help us perceive things like touch, pain, temperature, and sound by transmitting signals from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

Question 28

Efferent Neurons

Answer 28

also known as motor neurons, carry signals away from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands. They are responsible for carrying commands that trigger actions, such as moving muscles or releasing hormones.

Question 29

Interneurons

Answer 29

neurons that connect other neurons within the brain and spinal cord. They act as intermediaries, processing and relaying information between sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) neurons.

Question 30

Reflex Arc

Answer 30

the pathway taken by nerve impulses during a simple, automatic response to a stimulus (like pulling your hand away from something hot)

Question 31

Central Nervous System

Answer 31

consists of the brain and spinal cord. It processes and interprets sensory information, and it is responsible for controlling thoughts, movements, emotions, and other body functions. The CNS serves as the body's command center, coordinating the activities of the entire nervous system.

Question 32

Peripheral Nervous System

Answer 32

the part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord.

Question 33

Somatic (Peripheral Nervous System)

Answer 33

Controls voluntary movements by carrying signals to and from the skeletal muscles. It helps you move your body intentionally (like waving your hand).

Question 34

Autonomic (Peripheral Nervous System)

Answer 34

Controls involuntary functions, such as heartbeat, digestion, and breathing. It is further divided into: Sympathetic Nervous System: Prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses (increasing heart rate, dilating pupils). Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body down and helps return it to a "rest and digest" state (slowing heart rate, promoting digestion).

Question 35

Agonist Substances

Answer 35

These are substances that enhance or mimic the effect of a neurotransmitter. They bind to the same receptors as the neurotransmitter and activate them.

Question 36

Antagonist Substances

Answer 36

These are substances that block or reduce the effect of a neurotransmitter. They bind to the receptor but do not activate it, preventing the neurotransmitter from having its usual effect.

Question 37

Minnesota Study of Identical Twin

Answer 37

Found that genetics significantly shapes personality and intelligence. Shared environment had less influence than previously thought.

Question 38

Taste Buds: Young Children Vs. Adults

Answer 38

Young Children: They have more taste buds than adults, which can make them more sensitive to certain tastes, especially bitter flavors. This heightened sensitivity may explain why children are often more picky eaters. Adults: As people age, the number of taste buds decreases, and their sensitivity to tastes may reduce, making them less sensitive to certain flavors compared to young children.

Question 39

Bottom-Up Processing

Answer 39

This is when perception starts with the basic sensory information and builds up to a more complex understanding. It's data-driven, where we process raw sensory data (like sights or sounds) and gradually construct our perception of the whole picture. Example: Seeing an object for the first time and analyzing its features (shape, color) to recognize it.

Question 40

Top-Down Processing

Answer 40

This is when our prior knowledge, expectations, and experiences influence how we perceive something. It's concept-driven, where we interpret sensory information based on what we already know or expect. Example: Recognizing a familiar face even in a blurry image because you use your past experiences to fill in the gaps.

Question 41

Schemas

Answer 41

mental frameworks or structures that help us organize and interpret information based on our past experiences, knowledge, and expectations. They guide how we understand and react to new situations by providing a set of expectations for how things work.

Question 42

Assimilation

Answer 42

the process by which we incorporate new information into an existing schema or mental framework. Instead of changing the schema, we fit the new information into what we already know.

Question 43

Accommodation

Answer 43

the process of changing or adjusting an existing schema to incorporate new information that doesn’t fit with what we already know. Instead of fitting the new information into an old schema, we modify the schema to better understand the new experience.

Question 44

Gestalt Psychology

Answer 44

a school of thought in psychology that emphasizes understanding the mind and behavior as a whole, rather than focusing on individual parts. It suggests that humans naturally organize and perceive sensory information in structured patterns, and that the whole is often greater than the sum of its parts. For example: Figure-ground perception: We tend to focus on the main object (figure) while ignoring the background (ground). Proximity, similarity, and closure: These principles show how we group elements together based on their closeness, similarity, or the tendency to fill in missing information to complete a whole.

Question 45

Inattentional Blindness

Answer 45

psychological phenomenon where a person fails to notice something in their environment because their attention is focused elsewhere. Even though the object or event is in plain sight, the brain doesn't process it because it's not the focus of attention.

Question 46

Selective Attention

Answer 46

the process by which we focus on one specific thing while ignoring other stimuli around us. It allows us to concentrate on what is most important or relevant at the moment, while filtering out distractions.

Question 47

Algorithms

Answer 47

step-by-step procedures or sets of rules used to solve a problem or complete a task. They are logical, systematic methods that guarantee a solution if followed correctly.

Question 48

Heuristics

Answer 48

mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that help us make quick decisions or judgments, often based on limited information. While they can be efficient, they don't always guarantee accuracy and can sometimes lead to errors.

Question 49

Availability Heuristics

Answer 49

This is when we judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind. If something is more memorable or has recently occurred, we may think it's more common or likely to happen. Example: After hearing about a plane crash in the news, you might overestimate the danger of flying because the event is fresh in your mind.

Question 50

Representative Heuristics

Answer 50

This is when we make judgments based on how similar something is to a typical case or prototype, often leading to stereotypes. Example: If someone is tall and athletic, you might assume they're a basketball player, even though they could be an actor or a musician.

Question 51

Functional Fixedness

Answer 51

when you can't think of new ways to use an object because you're stuck on how it's normally used. For example, if you need a hammer and don't have one, you might not think to use a rock or book because you're focused on the hammer's usual purpose.

Question 52

Dual processing

Answer 52

the idea that we process information in two distinct ways: system 1: fast and little effort system 2: slower more effort

Question 53

Mnemonic Devices

Answer 53

memory aids or techniques that help people remember information more easily by associating it with something familiar, often through patterns, acronyms, rhymes, or visual imagery. They make complex information more accessible and easier to recall.

Question 54

Method of Loci

Answer 54

Associating information with a familiar physical location, like visualizing items in rooms of a house or along a route.

Question 55

Amnesia

Answer 55

memory loss, which can be caused by injury or illness.

Question 56

Anterograde Amnesia

Answer 56

Can't form new memories after the incident, but older memories remain. Example: A person forgets things that happen after an accident but remembers their life before it.

Question 57

Retrograde Amnesia

Answer 57

Can't remember past memories before the incident but can make new ones. Example: A person forgets past events but remembers things that happen after the injury.

Question 58

Hippocampus

Answer 58

a part of the brain that plays a crucial role in forming and storing new memories. It is involved in both the formation of new long-term memories and the organization of information. Working Memory: helps organize and link new information with existing memories, which is necessary for creating coherent and lasting memories. Without a fully functioning hippocampus, individuals may struggle with both forming new memories and recalling old ones. Anterograde Amnesia: Damage to the hippocampus makes it difficult to form new memories after the injury. People with this type of amnesia may not be able to remember things that happened after the damage, even though their memories from before the damage remain intact. Retrograde Amnesia: The hippocampus is also important for retrieving past memories. Damage to it may cause difficulty recalling memories that were formed before the injury, although new memories may still be formed after recovery.

Question 59

State-Dependent Memory

Answer 59

refers to the phenomenon where people are more likely to remember information when they are in the same mental or physical state as when the memory was formed. In other words, the mood, emotions, or physical condition you're in during encoding can help you retrieve that memory later if you're in the same state.

Question 60

General Intelligence Theory (g)

Answer 60

suggests that intelligence is a single, overarching ability that influences performance across various cognitive tasks. According to this theory, people who perform well in one area, like math, are likely to perform well in others because of the influence of the general intelligence factor, g.

Question 61

Test Validity

Answer 61

the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. In other words, it ensures that the test accurately reflects the concept or trait it aims to assess.

Question 62

Test Reliability

Answer 62

the consistency and stability of a test's results over time. A reliable test will produce similar results under consistent conditions, meaning it measures the same thing in the same way each time it is administered.

Question 63

Stereotype Threat

Answer 63

the psychological phenomenon where individuals feel at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group, which can negatively affect their performance. This fear of reinforcing stereotypes can cause stress, anxiety, and decreased focus, ultimately leading to poorer performance on tasks, even if the individual has the ability to succeed. For example, if women are reminded of the stereotype that they perform poorly on math tests, they may experience anxiety that impairs their performance, even if they are skilled at math.