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Question 1

Temperament

Answer 1

the innate traits that influence how individuals react to their environment and regulate their emotions. These traits are present from early childhood and are believed to have a biological basis.

Emotional Reactivity:
This refers to how intensely a person experiences emotions. Some people might have strong emotional reactions, while others might be more subdued.
Activity Level:
This describes the general energy level of a person. Some individuals are naturally more active and energetic, while others are more relaxed and calm.
Sociability:
This aspect involves how comfortable and eager a person is to interact with others. Some people are naturally more sociable and outgoing, while others may be more reserved.
Attention Span and Persistence:
This refers to how long a person can focus on a task and how persistent they are in completing it. Some individuals have a longer attention span and are more persistent, while others may get distracted easily.
Temperament is important because it can influence a person’s behavior, interactions, and overall personality development. Understanding temperament can help parents, educators, and psychologists provide better support and guidance tailored to an individual’s natural tendencies.

Question 1

Conscious Consciousness

Answer 1

Current awareness; what you are focused on and engaged in at any given moment.

Question 2

Preconscious Consciousness

Answer 2

Information readily available to consciousness, such as what you had for breakfast, or the first movie you saw in a theatre.

Question 3

Unconscious Consciousness

Answer 3

Thoughts, feelings, and memories outside of awareness, which we cannot access. These are built from experiences throughout our lives, but primarily the domain of early childhood experiences. The psychodynamic perspective believes much of what interferes with our adult lives from a behavioral and personality perspective, are the unresolved conflicts of our childhoods. The things that may be upsetting or traumatic, often end up in our unconscious awareness, via the defense mechanism, repression, yet they still have an impact on our thoughts, behaviors, and relationships with others.

Question 4

Id

Answer 4

Operates on the pleasure principle (immediate gratification).

Question 5

Ego

Answer 5

Operates on the reality principle (mediates between id and superego).

Question 6

Superego

Answer 6

Operates on the morality principle (internalized ideals and standards).

Question 7

Defense Mechanisms

Answer 7

exist to protect the Ego. The ego’s job is challenging because it constantly faces conflicting demands. When the ego is unable to effectively balance these demands, it experiences anxiety and poor self-esteem. The defense mechanisms exist to alleviate anxiety and feelings of low self-worth or value. Defense mechanisms primarily operate at an unconscious level.

Question 8

Denial

Answer 8

Refusing to acknowledge reality.

Question 9

Displacement

Answer 9

Shifting impulses to a less threatening target. Boss yells at you, then you take your anger out on your spouse.

Question 10

Projection

Answer 10

Attributing one’s own unacceptable impulses to others.

Question 11

Rationalization

Answer 11

Creating self-justifying explanations. Like cognitive dissonance

Question 12

Reaction Formation

Answer 12

Acting the opposite of one’s true feelings. Someone who has unconscious feelings of hatred towards a particular person might act excessively friendly and kind towards that person. They overcompensate to hide their true feelings, even from themselves.

Question 13

Regression

Answer 13

Reverting to an earlier stage of development. Immature response to the situation you are faced with at the moment.

Question 14

Repression

Answer 14

Blocking unacceptable thoughts from consciousness. Sweep it under the rug of conscious awareness.

Question 15

Sublimation

Answer 15

Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable behaviors. A person who is experiencing a lot of anger at their work or life situation, takes up intense physical exercise, such as running long distances, or weight lifting.

Question 16

Rorschach Inkblot Test

Answer 16

Interpretation of inkblots to reveal unconscious thoughts.

Question 17

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Answer 17

Creating stories about ambiguous pictures.

Question 18

Focus

Answer 18

Emphasizes human potential and free will. We are in control of our lives and outcomes.

Question 19

Unconditional Positive Regard (Rogers)

Answer 19

Acceptance and love regardless of behavior.

Question 20

Self-Actualizing (Maslow)

Answer 20

The motivation to fulfill one’s potential.

Question 21

Self Concept

Answer 21

A person’s overall awareness of who and what he or she is.

Question 22

Reciprocal Determinism

Answer 22

Interaction among and between behavior, personal factors, and environment. The main idea behind reciprocal determinism is that behavior, personal factors (like thoughts and feelings), and the environment all interact and influence each other in a continuous, bidirectional way, to help shape one’s personality.

Question 23

Self-Efficacy

Answer 23

Belief in one’s ability to succeed.

Question 24

Self-Esteem

Answer 24

Feelings of self-worth.

Question 25

Self-Concept

Answer 25

Overall perception of oneself.

Question 26

Locus of control

Answer 26

refers to an individual's belief about the extent to which they can control events affecting them.

Question 27

Internal Locus of Control

Answer 27

Belief that one can influence events and their outcomes through their own actions. A student believes her success on exams is due to her hard work and study habits.

Question 28

External Locus of Control

Answer 28

Belief that external forces, such as luck or fate, control events and outcomes. A person who attributes job promotions to being in the right place at the right time, or knowing somebody with connections, rather than being the results of one’s skills and efforts, is exhibiting an external locus of control.

Question 29

Optimistic Explanatory Style

Answer 29

A person who fails a test might think, "I didn't study enough this time (internal, unstable, specific), but I can do better next time."

Question 30

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

Answer 30

A person who fails a test might think, "I'm just not smart enough (internal, stable, global), and I'll never do well in school."

Question 31

The Big Five Theory (OCEAN Model)

Answer 31

Openness: imagination, curiosity Conscientiousness: organization, responsibility Extraversion: sociability, assertiveness Agreeableness: cooperation, empathy Neuroticism: emotional stability

Question 32

HEXACO-PI-R (OCEAN + Honesty-Humility)

Answer 32

H: Honesty-Humility E: Emotionality X: Extraversions A: Agreeableness C: Conscientiousness O: Openness Questionnaire built upon lexical analysis* used to assess the six factors of the HEXACO personality model.

Question 33

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

Answer 33

Objective test used to assess personality and psychopathology.

Question 34

Factor Analysis

Answer 34

is a statistical technique used to identify clusters of related traits. For instance, feeling comfortable starting conversations with strangers, enjoying social gatherings, and feeling energized around other people are related traits to extraversion. In a personality inventory with a likert scale (Strongly Agree, Agree, N/A, Disagree, Strongly Disagree), factor analysis would reveal people that score highly in extraversion share these similar sentiments.

Question 36

Motivation

Answer 36

refers to the processes that initiate, direct, and sustain goal-oriented behaviors

Question 37

Drive-Reduction Theory

Answer 37

suggests that motivation arises from biological needs that create an uncomfortable state (a drive), pushing an organism to take action to reduce that discomfort and restore homeostasis. When a person feels thirsty (drive), they drink water to reduce the discomfort and return to a balanced state.

Question 38

Arousal theory

Answer 38

states that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, which varies from person to person. Some seek excitement, while others prefer calmness.

Question 39

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Answer 39

states that an optimal level of arousal improves performance, but too much or too little arousal can hinder it. The level of optimal arousal depends on the complexity of the task and the individual's optimal arousal levels. For instance, a student taking an easy quiz might perform better with moderate stress, but too much anxiety during a difficult exam could impair their performance (Eustress Vs. Distress). Stress is any physiological or psychological stimuli that impacts homeostasis. In summary, the law suggests that performance increases with mental arousal (stress) but only up to a point. When an individual's level of stress is too low or too high, their performance deteriorates

Question 40

Sensation seeking

Answer 40

is a personality trait characterized by a desire for varied, novel (new), and intense experiences. It includes four components: Experience Seeking – Desire for new experiences through travel, or unconventional lifestyles. A person traveling solo to an unfamiliar country to experience a new culture. Thrill & Adventure Seeking – Desire for excitement through risky physical activities. Someone who enjoys skydiving, bungee jumping, or racing motorcycles. Disinhibition – Preference for social and uninhibited behaviors, often linked to impulsivity. Engaging in spontaneous parties, heavy drinking, or risky social behavior. Boredom Susceptibility – Aversion to repetition and predictable experiences. A person who quickly loses interest in routine jobs and frequently seeks change

Question 41

Self-determination theory

Answer 41

suggests that people are driven by three innate needs: autonomy (independence with decision making), competence (capable of accomplishing tasks and achieving goals), and relatedness (socially connected to others by forming healthy relationships).

Question 42

Intrinsic Motivation

Answer 42

Doing something for personal satisfaction. Painting for the love of art, not for money or accolades.

Question 43

Extrinsic Motivation

Answer 43

Doing something for external rewards or to avoid punishment. Studying to earn a scholarship or avoid being punished by your parents due to poor academic results

Question 44

Incentive Theory

Answer 44

suggests that behavior is motivated by external rewards and punishments, rather than internal drives. A worker volunteers to put in extra hours to receive additional pay, not because he likes the work itself.

Question 45

Instinct Theory

Answer 45

suggests that behaviors are motivated by evolutionary, biological instincts that aid survival. A newborn baby instinctively sucking for nourishment (rooting reflex). Ducklings imprinting with the first animals that they see. Kurt Lewin identified three types of conflicts that affect decision-making: Approach-Approach Conflict – Choosing between two desirable options, such as deciding between two great vacation destinations. Think win-win. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict – Choosing between two undesirable options, such as walking a long distance home or paying for an Uber with money you were saving to buy dinner at your favorite restaurant. Think lose-lose. Approach-Avoidance Conflict – A single choice has both positive and negative aspects, such as accepting a high-paying job that requires relocating away from your family and friends. Think win-lose

Question 46

Ghrelin

Answer 46

A hormone released by the stomach that increases hunger. When a person hasn’t eaten for hours, ghrelin levels rise, making them feel hungry.

Question 47

Leptin

Answer 47

A hormone released by fat cells that signals fullness and suppresses hunger. After a large meal, leptin levels rise, making a person feel full and stop eating.

Question 48

Hypothalamus

Answer 48

Regulates hunger and satiety. Damage to the lateral hypothalamus (regulates hunger) can cause a loss of appetite, while damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus (regulates satiety) can lead to overeating.

Question 49

Pituitary Gland

Answer 49

Works with the hypothalamus to regulate hormones, including those that affect hunger and metabolism

Question 50

Environmental Factors in Eating Motivation

Answer 50

Presence of Food: Seeing a tray of cookies at a party can trigger one to eat even if a person isn’t actually hungry. Time of Day: People may eat at lunchtime out of habit, even if they ate a late breakfast. We are creatures of habit, and stick to schedules. This is not a hunger response. Social Gatherings: People eat when others around them are eating, even when they aren’t necessarily hungry.* *The presence of others may cause a person to eat more than they would when they eat on their own, but this is not necessarily true in many cases

Question 51

facial feedback hypothesis

Answer 51

is the phenomenon in which our actual expressions can generate the feelings aligned with the expression. If we smile we feel happy and if we scowl we feel anger. The physical manipulation of the muscles required for the facial expressions actually creates the affiliated emotion or feeling. “Fake it till you make it

Question 52

broaden-and-build theory

Answer 52

in positive psychology suggests that positive emotions (such as happiness, and perhaps interest and anticipation) broaden one's awareness and encourage novel, exploratory thoughts and actions. Over time, this broadened behavioral repertoire builds useful skills and psychological resources

Question 53

Elicitors

Answer 53

are the stimuli (causes) that trigger emotional responses. These can be events, situations, objects, or even internal thoughts. Examples of elicitors include seeing a loved one (eliciting joy), experiencing a dangerous situation (eliciting fear), receiving an insult (eliciting anger), and experiencing the loss of a loved one (eliciting sadness

Question 54

Display rules

Answer 54

are the social and cultural norms that dictate when, where, and how emotions should be expressed. They govern how we manage and modify our emotional expressions in social situations. These rules can vary significantly across cultures and can influence whether emotions are openly expressed, suppressed, or modified. They also can impact nonverbal communication, including facial expressions and body language. Understanding display rules is crucial for interpreting emotional expressions accurately, especially in cross-cultural interactions