3 Flashcards

Question

What did Lewis later suggest about Ramapithecus and Sivapithecus?

Answer 1

They are the same genus, Sivapithecus.

Answer 2

14-12 million years ago

Answer 3

Shiwalik Hills (India), Potwar Hills (Pakistan), Nepal, Turkey, Hungary

Answer 4

Arboreal with vertically clinging feet

Answer 5

Molars are relatively large, with low cusps, thick enamel adapted to hard and tough food. Incisors and canines are vertically implanted compared to modern apes. Thick enamel leads to a V-shaped dental arcade.

Answer 6

Shorter face, absence of bony sinus in brow area, vertically elongated orbits, concave profile, projecting incisors. Post-cranial anatomy differs, exhibiting ape-like quadrupedalism and suspensory abilities.

Answer 7

Probable ancestor to the orangutan.

Answer 8

Parallel Evolution Theory

Answer 9

Possibly due to changing climate leading to the replacement of evergreen forests by wooded grasslands.

Answer 10

Dr. Arun Sonakia

Answer 11

Narmada valley in Hathnora, Madhya Pradesh, in 1982. Around 0.7 million years old.

Answer 12

Cranium ascribed to a 30-year-old female with a jaw skeleton of 7.9x13.4 cm and cranial capacity of 1200 cc. Exhibits cultural features similar to Homo erectus.

Answer 13

Initially classified as Homo erectus with cranial capacity 1200 cc and age of 0.7 million years. Controversy arose with claims of Narmada man being the earliest Homo sapiens, suggesting a separate evolution in India.

Answer 14

Rejected in 2004. Conclusion: Narmada man was Homo erectus with cranial capacity 1200 cc and age of 0.7 million years.

Answer 15

Opened possibilities for discussions on parallel evolution theories. Speculations on incursion of Chinese erectus into Indian territory, contributing to the understanding of human migration and evolution.

Answer 16

The ethnographic study of people for archaeological reasons, focusing on material remains rather than culture. A combination of archaeology and ethnography.

Answer 17

Behaviors, and practices to understand the behavioral relationships underlying the production of material culture in the past.

Answer 18

Logical positivism, quantitative data analysis, hypothetico-deductive model, interpretative analysis.

Answer 19

Study of present-day use and significance of artifacts, buildings, and structures. Investigation of how material things become part of the archaeological record.

Answer 20

Sheds light on the use of technology, helping identify specific artifact uses and filling gaps in history. Provides insight into social structures, religious beliefs, and daily life practices of ancient societies.

Answer 21

Identification of tool forms through ethnographic analogy should be limited to cases with demonstrable continuity between archaeological cultures and modern societies.

Answer 22

To the understanding of human evolution, migration, and archaeological interpretation. These topics bridge the gap between ancient and contemporary human practices, enriching our knowledge of cultural and biological evolution.

Answer 23

Shiwaliks, bordering the Himalayas, played a crucial role in the evolution of various ape species. Fossils found in Shiwaliks provide insights into the biological history of primates.

Answer 24

Two significant hominid fossils found in Shiwalik hills.

Answer 25

Discovered by Edward Lewis near River Tinau, Nepal. Initially considered the earliest Miocene hominid (12-15 million years ago). Recent opinions treat Ramapithecus as an ape, not hominid. Fossil evidence includes teeth, jaw, and a small part of the lower face. Some argue it belongs to the Miocene radiation complex of Dryopithecus.

Answer 26

Recovered from Shiwalik Hills in India and Pakistan. Fossils date back to 14-12 million years ago. Initially, fossils of Ramapithecus were considered the same as Sivapithecus, both grouped under Sivapithecus. Proposed as a probable ancestor to orangutans.

Answer 27

Illustration of the proposed phylogenetic status, suggesting relationships among various hominids and primates.

Answer 28

Potwar Plateau extends from Shiwalik Hills. Soan Culture is in and around Potwar Plateau.

Answer 29

Lower Paleolithic Culture divided into pre-Soan, early Soan, late Soan, and evolved Soan. Characterized by chopper-chopping and hand axe tools.

Answer 30

Lewis discovered Ramapithecus and associated traits with early humans. Supported by L. Leakey's findings in Kenya (Kenyapithecus).

Answer 31

Debate focused on past cranial features, dentition, and cranium & facial features.

Answer 32

Recent researchers highlighted non-hominid traits of Ramapithecus. Closely related to orangutan ancestor Sivapithecus. Discrepancies between expected hominid traits and Ramapithecus characteristics.

Answer 33

Widely accepted that the human-ape split occurred about 8-6 million years ago. Ramapithecus appeared earlier (14-12 million years ago).

Answer 34

Fossils initially in Ramapithecus moved to the genus Sivapithecus. Sivapithecus and Ramapithecus considered part of the Miocene radiation complex of Dryopithecus. Shared characteristics but Sivapithecus exhibits large canine radiation.

Answer 35

Some argue for Ramapithecus as a hominid, suggesting tool use as a reason for reduced canines. Limited evidence supporting this idea. Modern paleontologists, like David Philbeam, consider Ramapithecus part of the Miocene radiation complex of Dryopithecus. Ramapithecus lumped with Sivapithecus, suggesting it was smaller and likely female.

Answer 36

The debate surrounding Ramapithecus highlights the challenges in classifying fossils and understanding their evolutionary significance. The shifting perspectives emphasize the dynamic nature of paleoanthropological research and the importance of ongoing discoveries in shaping our understanding of human evolution.

Answer 37

Lewis found broken teeth and jaw parts in the Shiwalik hills of India, naming them Ramapithecus. Later, evidence suggested that Ramapithecus and Sivapithecus are the same genus, Sivapithecus.

Answer 38

Fossils date back to 14-12 million years ago, present in Asia and Europe. Found in Shiwalik Hills (India), Potwar Hills (Pakistan), Nepal, Turkey, Hungary.

Answer 39

Shares similarities with Proconsul and Dryopithecus but more arboreal with vertically clinging feet. Arboreal lifestyle reflected in hand anatomy suggesting suspensory behavior.

Answer 40

Molars relatively large, low cusps, thick enamel, adapted to hard and tough food. Incisors and canines vertically implanted compared to modern apes. Thick enamel led to a V-shaped dental arcade, distinguishing it from modern apes.

Answer 41

Shorter face than earlier apes. Shares physical features with orangutan like absence of bony sinus in brow area, vertically elongated orbits, concave profile, and projecting incisors. Post-cranial anatomy differs from orangutan, exhibiting ape-like quadrupedalism and suspensory abilities.

Answer 42

Proposed as a probable ancestor to the orangutan. Disappeared by the end of Miocene, possibly due to the changing climate leading to the replacement of evergreen forests by wooded grasslands.

Answer 43

Sivapithecus suggested to have originated and evolved parallelly with African hominids. Adapted to trees, possibly descending to the ground occasionally. Contributed to the understanding of human evolution in the context of climate and habitat changes.

Answer 44

Broken skull with the upper jaw discovered in the middle of Narmada valley in Hathnora, Madhya Pradesh, in 1982. Most ancient human remnant in the Indian subcontinent, around 0.7 million years old.

Answer 45

Cranium ascribed to a 30-year-old female with a jaw skeleton of 7.9x13.4 cm and cranial capacity of 1200 cc. Exhibits cultural features similar to Homo erectus.

Answer 46

Initially classified as Homo erectus with cranial capacity 1200 cc and age of 0.7 million years. Sankhyan, Kennedy, and others proposed Narmada man as the earliest Homo sapiens, suggesting a separate evolution in India. Differentiated it from African Homo erectus, European Neanderthal, and Western Archaic Homo sapiens. Claims of Narmada man as an archaic Homo sapiens were rejected in 2004. Conclusion: Narmada man was Homo erectus with cranial capacity 1200 cc and age of 0.7 million years.

Answer 47

The controversy opened possibilities for discussions on parallel evolution theories. Speculations on incursion of Chinese erectus into Indian territory, contributing to the understanding of human migration and evolution.

Answer 48

Ethno-Archaeology is the ethnographic study of people for archaeological reasons, focusing on material remains rather than culture. A combination of archaeology and ethnography. Focuses on the study of present-day cultures, behaviors, and practices to understand the behavioral relationships underlying the production of material culture in the past.

Answer 49

Methods Used: Logical positivism, quantitative data analysis, hypothetico-deductive model, interpretative analysis. Components: Study of present-day use and significance of artifacts, buildings, and structures. Investigation of how material things become part of the archaeological record.

Answer 50

Significance of Ethno-Archaeology: Sheds light on the use of technology, helping identify specific artifact uses and filling gaps in history. Provides insight into social structures, religious beliefs, and daily life practices of ancient societies. Caution in Analogy: Identification of tool forms through ethnographic analogy should be limited to cases with demonstrable continuity between archaeological cultures and modern societies.

Answer 51

In India, tribal areas, rich in mineral resources, have been historically exploited due to forest resources and political objectives. Post-independence, developmental policies, industrialization, and urbanization led to extensive displacement of tribal populations, causing social, economic, political, and cultural challenges, especially in central India.

Answer 52

Large-scale projects like Bhilai, Bokaro, and Durgapur for heavy industries.

Answer 53

Examples include the Subarnarekha and Keol Karo dams.

Answer 54

Growth of urban areas leading to displacement.

Answer 55

Hydroelectric, Nuclear, and Thermal power projects.

Answer 56

Displacement due to forest reservations for sanctuaries and parks.

Answer 57

Projects like Vedanta and POSCO in Odisha.

Answer 58

Loss of livelihood due to pollution and environmental damage.

Answer 59

Including railways and roads.

Answer 60

Although tribal communities make up 8.6% of the total population, over 50% of those displaced belong to tribal groups. The central Indian region is most affected, with the tribal population bearing the brunt of displacement.

Answer 61

Landlessness, Joblessness, Homelessness, Food Insecurity & Health Issues, Social & Cultural Disruption.

Answer 62

Awareness and Integration, Market Demand for Tribal Products.

Answer 63

Rehabilitation policies in some states lack a clear definition of 'outstees,' excluding certain affected groups.

Answer 64

Alternative land provided is often not suitable for cultivation.

Answer 65

Rehabilitation processes often extend over decades.

Answer 66

Lack of government intent and pilferage exacerbate tribal agony.

Answer 67

Train tribals to benefit from industries and encourage entrepreneurship.

Answer 68

Provide houses, employment, health, and education facilities, not just cash compensation.

Answer 69

Industries should appreciate and build upon tribal socio-economic structures.

Answer 70

Promote minor projects as alternatives to major ones.

Answer 71

Include rehabilitation costs in the project approval process.

Answer 72

Uphold the act's provisions for fair compensation and rehabilitation.

Answer 73

Involve the public, especially Gram Sabhas, in decision-making about land acquisition.

Answer 74

Tribal displacement is an inevitable consequence of national development, but integration of tribal and national interests is crucial. Just, humane, and voluntary processes, along with a people-centric rehabilitation approach, are necessary to mitigate the adverse impacts on tribal communities.

Answer 75

Post-independence, India's pursuit of rapid economic development necessitated large-scale industrialization, leading to significant displacement. To address the challenges faced by displaced communities, the National Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy 2007 was introduced.

Answer 76

The policy covers all cases of involuntary displacement.

Answer 77

Introduced for displacement of 400/200 or more families in plain/tribal, hilly, and Scheduled Areas.

Answer 78

Applied in case of displacement of 200+ ST families.

Answer 79

Compulsory consultations with Gram Sabha or public hearings.

Answer 80

Emphasizes rehabilitation before displacement.

Answer 81

If possible, compensation provided in the form of land.

Answer 82

Skill development support and job preferences for affected families.

Answer 83

Grants provided in lieu of land or jobs.

Answer 84

Option for shares in companies implementing projects for affected families.

Answer 85

Gram Sabha Consultation, Social Impact Assessment, NHRC Intervention.

Answer 86

One Law, One Purpose, Exclusion of Vulnerable Groups, Limited Benefits for Small Intensity Displacement, No Right to Reject Projects, Inadequate Safeguards, Faulty Redressal Mechanism.

Answer 87

While the National Rehabilitation and Resettlement Policy 2007 has positive aspects, such as Gram Sabha consultations and Social Impact Assessment, there are significant shortcomings. These include the exclusion of vulnerable groups, limited benefits for small displacement, and inadequate safeguards for displaced persons. Addressing these issues is crucial to ensuring fair and just rehabilitation and resettlement practices.

Answer 88

The health and nutrition status of Indian tribes is intricately connected with their socio-economic and cultural contexts. Despite governmental efforts, various challenges persist, impacting the overall well-being of tribal populations.

Answer 89

Many tribes live in remote and geographically isolated areas, limiting their access to healthcare facilities.

Answer 90

Tribal communities often practice endogamy, leading to a higher prevalence of genetic disorders like sickle cell anemia.

Answer 91

Lack of surplus and traditional economies contribute to nutritional challenges and poverty.

Answer 92

Dependence on traditional healers, sorcerers, and witchcraft sometimes hinders the adoption of modern healthcare practices.

Answer 93

Common, particularly among tribal women, contributing to maternal and infant mortality.

Answer 94

Prevalent among tribal women, affecting the health of both mothers and infants.

Answer 95

Tribal diets lack essential nutrients such as calcium, vitamin A, vitamin C, Riboflavin, and animal proteins.

Answer 96

Taboos related to the milking of cows contribute to limited consumption of milk and milk products, impacting nutrition.

Answer 97

Sickle cell anemia is widespread among tribes in malaria-prone zones. Irula, Gond, and other tribes experience various genetic disorders.

Answer 98

HIV/AIDS spreading among tribes in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh due to poverty and involvement in high-risk activities.

Answer 99

High incidence among tribal women affecting maternal and child health.

Answer 100

Prevalent, especially among women, impacting overall health.

Answer 101

Strengthening health facilities in tribal areas, addressing infrastructural gaps.

Answer 102

Collaborating with traditional healers for better integration of tribal healthcare.

Answer 103

Emphasizing preventive approaches, including immunization and anti-infection measures.

Answer 104

Involving local tribal communities in health programs, considering socio-cultural nuances.

Answer 105

Training health workers in tribal cultures to enhance understanding and treatment efficacy.

Answer 106

Documenting and codifying traditional medical practices for better integration with modern healthcare.

Answer 107

Establishing mobile clinics to reach remote tribal areas.

Answer 108

Collaborating with NGOs for targeted health interventions in tribal regions.

Answer 109

Addressing the health and nutritional challenges among Indian tribes requires a multi-faceted approach, considering cultural sensitivities, traditional practices, and the socio-economic context. Engaging local communities, improving healthcare infrastructure, and integrating traditional healing methods can contribute to enhancing the health and well-being of tribal populations.

Answer 110

Education is considered a powerful tool for tribal development, but low literacy rates persist due to internal and external factors.

Answer 111

Traditionally, tribes have been preliterate with subsistence economies, and many live below the poverty line. Community-oriented values, belief in spirits, and magico-religious practices shape their worldview.

Answer 112

Education is crucial for tribal empowerment, providing knowledge that can lead to economic opportunities and freedom from exploitation.

Answer 113

The literacy rate among Scheduled Tribes (ST) in 2011 was 59%, compared to the general literacy rate of 73%.

Answer 114

Tribal girls face a grimmer scenario, with a literacy rate of only 50% according to the 2011 census.

Answer 115

For poverty-ridden parents, education is often a luxury they can't afford, as children contribute to family livelihood. Absence of childcare facilities in remote areas adds to the challenge.

Answer 116

Some educated tribal youth, after gaining education and employment, feel alienated from their families, creating a sense of insecurity among parents.

Answer 117

Some tribal groups oppose education due to superstitions, believing it goes against their traditional practices.

Answer 118

The content of education, often not adapted to local contexts, may not be relevant, especially at the primary stage.

Answer 119

Dilapidated school buildings, inadequate facilities, and lack of supporting services hinder educational progress.

Answer 120

Lack of education in the mother tongue discourages tribal attendance in schools.

Answer 121

Teacher absenteeism in tribal areas affects the consistency and quality of education.

Answer 122

Articles 15(4) and 46 empower the state to make special provisions for the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes, including STs. Education is a fundamental right under Article 21A.

Answer 123

Post-matric scholarships, hostels, free coaching, and reservations in educational institutions are some initiatives. Special Integrated Tribal Development Projects aim to uplift education in tribal regions.

Answer 124

Introduce a supplementary curriculum adapted to local conditions, emphasizing vocational education aligned with tribal values.

Answer 125

Include tribal activities like agriculture, dancing, and archery in the curriculum to maintain cultural continuity.

Answer 126

Prioritize job-oriented and vocational education.

Answer 127

Select teachers with knowledge of tribal life and culture, preferably from tribal communities.

Answer 128

Establish educational institutions in tribal areas, addressing the shortage of teachers and facilities.

Answer 129

Encourage community involvement in education and establish childcare centers to create awareness of health and nutrition.

Answer 130

Implement post-training care as part of the teacher training program.

Answer 131

Challenges persist in tribal education despite commendable government efforts; a more localized, culturally sensitive approach is needed for true upliftment.

Answer 132

The significance of village studies in India is rooted in the country's socio-economic fabric, where despite industrialization, a large majority of the population lives in villages and remains dependent on agriculture. This paper will discuss the various aspects that highlight the importance of studying Indian villages.

Answer 133

- Over 72% of the Indian population resides in villages, emphasizing their demographic importance. - Half of India's working population is directly employed in agricultural activities.

Answer 134

- The Indian village holds ideological significance, being considered a signifier of authentic native life, often referred to as 'Real India.' - Andre Beteille emphasizes that villages reflect the basic values of Indian civilization through their design.

Answer 135

- Charles Metcalfe conceptualized Indian village communities as 'little republics,' indicating their historical autonomy and self-sufficiency. - Villages have been the basic units of Indian civilization for centuries.

Answer 136

- Even after independence, villages continued to be treated as the basic unit of society. - Village studies in the field of social anthropology gained prominence in the 1950s-60s, focusing on in-depth fieldwork in single villages.

Answer 137

- Village studies contribute to the understanding of prevailing agrarian structures, relationships, and the concept of peasantry. - Scholars like Robert Redfield referred to Indian villages as 'little republics.'

Answer 138

- Villages are close to people's lives, livelihoods, cultures, and serve as a focal point of reference for prestige and identity. - Villages have survived wars, empires, famines, floods, making them essential for study (Das Gupta 1978).

Answer 139

In conclusion, the significance of village studies in India is multifaceted, encompassing demographic, cultural, historical, political, and developmental dimensions. The changing dynamics of Indian villages warrant continued scholarly attention to understand their evolving role in the socio-economic landscape.

Answer 140

N. K. Bose, born in Calcutta, made significant contributions to the field of anthropology. His academic journey includes a geology degree and a master's in anthropology. Bose worked as a research fellow at Calcutta University, visited Western universities, served as the Director of the Anthropological Survey of India, and advised the Government of India on tribal affairs.

Answer 141

1. Influenced by Boas' historical particularism, Bose adopted an approach emphasizing the unique historical development of each culture. 2. Fascinated by Kroeber and Wissler's trait distribution, Bose applied a diffusionist approach to study the spring festival culture complex and elements of temple architecture. 3. Bose explored Freud's ideas, particularly on how individuals behave under cultural stress. 4. Independently adopting a functional approach, Bose defined the nature of culture as an adaptive device organized around the soul of culture. 5. Bose was greatly influenced by Gandhism, reflecting in his anthropological perspectives.

Answer 142

1. Rejecting myths, Bose focused on economic and cultural security as the root of the persistence of the caste system. Emphasized a change-oriented study of the caste system, highlighting the shift from non-competitive traditional systems to competitive ones. 2. Conducted research on the Juang tribe of Odisha. Highlighted the absorption of tribal economies into the Hindu caste system and identified the roots of tribal separatist movements. 3. Lectured on the structure of Hindu society, emphasizing unity in diversity. Examined the fate of the Varna-Jati system at different historical phases. 4. Addressed the unequal economic, social, and political status contributing to sub-nationalist movements. Advocated against a communal basis for categorizing backwardness, suggesting power dispersal irrespective of caste and communities. 5. Pioneered field research in paleolithic archaeology in Mayurbhanj.

Answer 143

N. K. Bose's contributions spanned the study of the caste system, tribal dynamics, the structure of Indian civilization, and the impact of modernization on national integration. His multidimensional approach drew from historical particularism, diffusionism, Freudian ideas, and functionalism, reflecting a comprehensive understanding of anthropological perspectives.

Answer 144

Over the past two decades, economic policy changes significantly impacted tribal communities. Enactment of laws like the Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996, and the Forest Rights Act, 2006, recognizes tribal autonomy and rights.

Answer 145

Despite legal frameworks, the implementation is reluctant and lacks necessary mechanisms. Weaknesses include inadequate support for Gram Sabhas and Forest Rights Committees (FRCs) and inefficient state-level monitoring committees.

Answer 146

Administrative practices have not internalized the import of PESA. Bureaucracies, including Forest Departments, deny tribal access to their rights, necessitating changes in administrative and control practices.

Answer 147

Government officials, tasked with preventing tribal land loss, are increasingly negotiating for project authorities, raising concerns.

Answer 148

Cases of fraudulent Gram Sabha consent are reported, emphasizing the need for penalties to prevent such actions.

Answer 149

Creation or extension of urban bodies in Fifth Schedule areas must follow a law made by Parliament, aligning with constitutional provisions (Article 243-ZC).

Answer 150

MoUs between states and companies, making states parties to agreements, compromise state neutrality. The review of such MoUs is suggested to maintain state neutrality.

Answer 151

Demand for repealing the Habitual Offenders Act to remove criminal stigma from de-notified tribes. Calls to repeal anti-beggary laws that criminalize talents, disproportionately affecting women.

Answer 152

Despite Supreme Court directions, the Andaman Trunk Road remains open, impacting the protection of Jarawa tribes. Instances of exploitation of Jarawas as tourist attractions and reported sexual exploitation highlight the need for road closure.

Answer 153

DNA testing on Jarawas raises concerns about informed consent, particularly relevant in the context of proposed DNA databases.

Answer 154

Understanding the legal and constitutional issues surrounding tribal communities is essential for anthropologists to comprehend the challenges, changes, and protection needed for these indigenous groups. This aligns with the broader anthropological goal of studying societies in their legal and historical contexts.

Answer 155

Calcutta, geology degree, master's in anthropology, research fellow at Calcutta University, Director of the Anthropological Survey of India, advisory role for tribal affairs.

Answer 156

Franz Boas (historical particularism), Diffusionism (Kroeber and Wissler), Freudian ideas, Functionalism (Malinowski), Gandhism.

Answer 157

Economic and cultural security as the root of caste system persistence, Change-oriented study emphasizing a shift from non-competitive to competitive systems.

Answer 158

Research on the Juang tribe of Odisha, Highlighted absorption of tribal economies into the Hindu caste system, Identified roots of tribal separatist movements.

Answer 159

Lectured on the structure of Hindu society, Emphasized unity in diversity, Examined the fate of the Varna-Jati system at different historical phases.

Answer 160

Addressed unequal economic, social, and political status contributing to sub-nationalist movements, Advocated against communal categorization of backwardness, Suggested power dispersal irrespective of caste and communities.

Answer 161

Pioneered field research in paleolithic archaeology in Mayurbhanj.

Answer 162

Study of caste system, Tribal dynamics research, Structure of Indian civilization, Impact of modernization on national integration, Pioneering work in prehistoric archaeology.

Answer 163

1. Economic policy changes impacting tribes 2. Laws like PESA and Forest Rights Act recognizing tribal rights 3. Implementation challenges and lack of mechanisms 4. Weaknesses in support for Gram Sabhas and Forest Rights Committees 5. Bureaucratic shift in roles, officials negotiating for project authorities 6. Cases of fraudulent Gram Sabha consent 7. Constitutional provisions and urban development in Fifth Schedule areas 8. Review of MoUs for institutional neutrality 9. Issues concerning de-notified tribes and demand for repealing Habitual Offenders Act 10. Andaman Trunk Road impact on Jarawas, exploitation concerns, and DNA testing with informed consent

Answer 164

1. Industrialization 2. Gramavashi Bharathi 3. Agricultural dependency 4. Basic unit of Indian civilization 5. Ideological category 6. Social anthropology 7. Peasant economy 8. Little republics

Answer 165

1. Robert Redfield 2. McKim Marriot 3. M. N. Sriniwas 4. D. N. Majumdar 5. S. C. Dube

Answer 166

1. Agrarian society 2. Caste system 3. Jajmani system 4. Joint family 5. Power structure 6. Gender differences 7. Changes in village system 8. Modernization, Westernization, Urbanization, Globalization

Answer 167

1. Historical particularism 2. Diffusionism 3. Freudian influence 4. Functionalism (Malinowski) 5. Influence of Gandhism 6. Caste system studies 7. Tribal studies 8. Structure of Indian civilization 9. National integration and modernization 10. Prehistoric archaeology

Answer 168

1. Sacred Complex 2. Nature man spirit complex 3. Tribal studies 4. History of Indian anthropology 5. Urban and industrial anthropology 6. Political anthropology 7. Psychological anthropology 8. Folklore study 9. Scheduled caste study 10. Physical anthropology contributions

Answer 169

1. Village study 2. Sanskritization 3. Westernization and modernization 4. Dominant caste 5. Secularization 6. Social change studies

Answer 170

1. Holistic functional approach 2. Lucknow School of Anthropology 3. Ethnographic and Folk Culture Society 4. Village and city studies 5. Physical anthropology 6. Race definition

Answer 171

1. Economic policy changes 2. PESA and FRA Acts 3. Implementation challenges 4. Bureaucratic role shift 5. Fraudulent consent 6. Constitutional provisions 7. MoUs review 8. De-notified tribes 9. Andaman Trunk Road issues 10. DNA testing and informed consent

Answer 172

1. Rehabilitation of Project Affected Persons 2. Minimizing land acquisition 3. Displacement in Central India and Northeast

Answer 173

1. Lack of tribal land protection 2. Wide definition of 'public purpose' 3. Public-Private Partnership concerns

Answer 174

1. Gram Sabha power to prevent alienation 2. Tribal exploitation of minerals 3. Adoption of Andhra Pradesh Land Transfer Regulation

Answer 175

1. Acquisition for government use 2. Consent for natural resource exploitation

Answer 176

1. Inalienable resource importance 2. 'Land for land' provision 3. Compensatory land cultivability 4. Continuous monitoring of R&R 5. Stake in assets for affected communities

Answer 177

1. Responsibility of Project Authorities 2. Utilization of government schemes

Answer 178

1. Resettlement and rehabilitation capacities 2. Need for professional training 3. Discontent and fact-finding committee

Answer 179

1. Recognition and engagement 2. Democratic grassroots movements

Answer 180

1. Increasing urbanization 2. Protection of tribal areas 3. Enhanced tribal representation

Answer 181

1. Census data reflection 2. Prevention of exploitation 3. Migrants Rights Legislation

Answer 182

1. PESA implementation 2. Empowered Gram Sabhas 3. Legal aid and awareness programs

Answer 183

1. Folk and modern media 2. School curriculum 3. Local dialects and technology

Answer 184

1. Protection of herbal medicines 2. Community ownership 3. Intellectual property rights

Answer 185

Cultural sensitivity in healthcare requires ethnographic understanding, intercultural communication proficiency, patient-centered methodologies, continual cultural competence training, community collaboration, institutional policy adaptation, and iterative feedback incorporation to mitigate cultural distance.

Answer 186

1. Healthcare within a walkable distance 2. Redesigning primary and secondary healthcare services

Answer 187

1. Selection, training, and deployment of local candidates 2. Levels: ASHA, Anganwadi workers, ANMs, paramedic workers, doctors, and managers 3. Commitment to serve for at least ten years

Answer 188

1. Opening colleges in scheduled districts 2. Reservation of seats for committed Scheduled Tribe candidates

Answer 189

1. Control of tobacco and drug consumption 2. Monitoring alcohol and tobacco use among Scheduled Tribe population

Answer 190

1. Allocation of one percent of TSP for data generation 2. Construction of Tribal Development Index (TDI) and Tribal Health Index (THI) 3. Ranking districts and states based on indices

Answer 191

1. Equality in health, sanitation, and nutrition by 2025 2. Human resource creation by 2025 3. Institutions for participatory governance by 2016 4. Annual Tribal Health Plans and budget allocation by 2017

Answer 192

1. Cultural relativism 2. Comparative and cross-cultural studies 3. Fieldwork 4. Felt need approach

Answer 193

1. Holism 2. Comparative and cross-cultural studies 3. Fieldwork 4. Felt need approach

Answer 194

1. Holism 2. Cultural relativism 3. Fieldwork 4. Felt need approach

Answer 195

1. Holism 2. Cultural relativism 3. Comparative and cross-cultural studies 4. Felt need approach

Answer 196

1. Holism 2. Cultural relativism 3. Comparative and cross-cultural studies 4. Fieldwork

Answer 197

1. Unfulfilled ethnic goals 2. Imbalanced economic development 3. Neglect of local needs 4. Accommodation of some regional demands leading to new demands

Answer 198

1. Ethnic, geographical, and linguistic diversity 2. Imbalanced economic development 3. Neglect of local needs 4. Accommodation of some regional demands leading to new demands

Answer 199

1. Ethnic, geographical, and linguistic diversity 2. Unfulfilled ethnic goals 3. Neglect of local needs 4. Accommodation of some regional demands leading to new demands

Answer 200

1. Ethnic, geographical, and linguistic diversity 2. Unfulfilled ethnic goals 3. Imbalanced economic development 4. Accommodation of some regional demands leading to new demands

Answer 201

According to anthropologists, regionalism is rooted in structure of society and geography. Bases of regionalism are ethnic, geographical and linguistic diversity. Unfulfilled ethnic goals, imbalanced economic development. Neglect of local needs and aspirations for longer time. Accommodation of some regional demands by states leading to emergence of new demands. Identity crisis

Answer 202

1. Sense of alienation 2. Violence 3. Separatist tendencies 4. Disrupted development

Answer 203

Sense of alienation. Violence Separatist tendencies. Disrupted development.

Answer 204

Sense of alienation. Violence Separatist tendencies. Disrupted development.

Answer 205

1. Identity crisis 2. Sense of alienation 3. Violence 4. Disrupted development

Answer 206

1. Identity crisis 2. Sense of alienation 3. Violence 4. Separatist tendencies

Answer 207

(1) (2) (3) (4) Naga movement Bodo movement. Jharkhand movement Gorakhaland movement

Answer 208

1. Naga movement 2. Jharkhand movement 3. Gorkhaland movement

Answer 209

1. Naga movement 2. Bodo movement 3. Gorkhaland movement

Answer 210

1. Naga movement 2. Bodo movement 3. Jharkhand movement

Answer 211

(1) (2) Creation of natural regions based on scientific criteria. Regionalism should not be seen merely as law and order problem. It’s a multidimensional issue and should be tackled with sympathy, care and appreciation for long suppressed aspirations. The Unique Academy (3) He suggested that locals should be given preference in certain categories of jobs such as semi-skilled and unskilled jobs to fulfill local aspirations. (4) Balanced regional growth : Thus anthropology through its all-round study of regionalism helps state in preventing regionalist and separatist tendencies in India and keep nation integrated.

Answer 212

(1) (2) Creation of natural regions based on scientific criteria. Regionalism should not be seen merely as law and order problem. It’s a multidimensional issue and should be tackled with sympathy, care and appreciation for long suppressed aspirations. The Unique Academy (3) He suggested that locals should be given preference in certain categories of jobs such as semi-skilled and unskilled jobs to fulfill local aspirations. (4) Balanced regional growth : Thus anthropology through its all-round study of regionalism helps state in preventing regionalist and separatist tendencies in India and keep nation integrated.

Answer 213

1. Creation of natural regions based on scientific criteria 2. Tackling regionalism multidimensionally with sympathy 3. Balanced regional growth

Answer 214

1. Creation of natural regions based on scientific criteria 2. Tackling regionalism multidimensionally with sympathy 3. Locals given preference in certain job categories

Answer 215

1. Stages of movements 2. Types of movements 3. Degree and nature of movements 4. Consequences of movements 5. Remedial measures

Answer 216

1. Causes of movements 2. Types of movements 3. Degree and nature of movements 4. Consequences of movements 5. Remedial measures

Answer 217

1. Causes of movements 2. Stages of movements 3. Degree and nature of movements 4. Consequences of movements 5. Remedial measures

Answer 218

1. Causes of movements 2. Stages of movements 3. Types of movements 4.

Answer 219

Examples (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Christian missionaries Bhill seva mandal of Thakkar Bappa Bharatiya Adhim Jati sevak sangh Servants of India society Ramakrishna mission. Nagaland Gandhi ashram.

Answer 220

() (2) (3) (4) They provide alternative to formal organizations Advisory and consultative role Complimentary to govt. action Help in planning and implementation of govt. programs.

Answer 221

1. Sincerely devoted workers 2. Better rapport with rural and tribal people 3. Operational flexibility

Answer 222

1. Sincerely devoted workers 2. Better rapport with rural and tribal people 3. Operational flexibility

Answer 223

1. Sincerely devoted workers 2. Better rapport with rural and tribal people 3. Operational flexibility

Answer 224

1. Sincerely devoted workers 2. Better rapport with rural and tribal people 3. Operational flexibility

Answer 225

1. Better rapport with rural and tribal people 2. Operational flexibility

Answer 226

1. Sincerely devoted workers 2. Operational flexibility

Answer 227

NGOs are supposed to be potentially superior to official agencies in following aspects. . (1) (2) (3) Their workers can be more sincerely devoted to reducing the suffering of poor than that of official personnel. They have better rapport with the rural and tribal people. Since they are not bound by rigid bureaucratic procedures, they can operate with more flexibility.

Answer 228

1. Advisory and consultative role 2. Complimentary to government action 3. Assist in planning and implementation of government programs

Answer 229

(1) (2) Setting up of CAPART (Council for advancement of people's action and rural technology) Financial grants to NGOs to implement govt. schemes. Traditionally NGOs have focused in areas of health and education but recently NGOs have diversified their field of work. New trends need NGOs to work in the field of land issues, bonded labour identification, drinking water problem, PVGTs, shifting cultivation, problems of tribal women etc.

Answer 230

(1) (2) Setting up of CAPART (Council for advancement of people's action and rural technology) Financial grants to NGOs to implement govt. schemes. Traditionally NGOs have focused in areas of health and education but recently NGOs have diversified their field of work. New trends need NGOs to work in the field of land issues, bonded labour identification, drinking water problem, PVGTs, shifting cultivation, problems of tribal women etc.

Answer 231

\(1) (2) (3) Many NGOs exist on paper only and eat up valuable tribal development fund. Duplication of NGOs working in same areas. Many NGOs are not willing to work in new areas. Allegation against some NGOs for working on religious conversions which should be avoided.

Answer 232

1. Existence on paper without actual impact 2. Allegations of religious conversions

Answer 233

1. Existence on paper without actual impact 2. Duplication of NGOs in the same areas

Answer 234

1. Work on new issues 2. Scope for NGOs in tribal development is vast

Answer 235

1. Venture into new areas 2. Scope for NGOs in tribal development is vast

Answer 236

1. Venture into new areas 2. Work on new issues

Answer 237

1. Action anthropology 2. Fieldwork tradition 3. Cultural relativism 4. Holism

Answer 238

Applications of Anthropology in Policy Formulation 1. **Applied Anthropology** - **Definition**: Anthropologists advise policymakers on policy formulation. - **Example**: Ministry of Tribal Development consults anthropologists for tribal health, education, and economic policies. The Xaxa Committee's report on tribal affairs illustrates this approach. 2. **Action Anthropology** - **Definition**: Anthropologists actively participate in government roles to shape and implement tribal policies. - **Examples**: S. C. Roy as a Bihar legislative assembly member supported tribal causes. Verrier Elwin served as an anthropological advisor in NEFA (North-East Frontier Agency). 3. **Fieldwork Tradition** - **Definition**: Fieldwork provides firsthand data used for policy formulation. - **Example**: D. N. Majumdar’s fieldwork on the Ho tribe provided crucial insights for policy development. 4. **Cultural Relativism** - **Definition**: Understanding tribal culture in its own context to create effective policies. - **Example**: Implementing cattle slaughter bans must consider tribal reliance on cattle for food. 5. **Holism** - **Definition**: Anthropological approach is holistic, considering the overall impact of policies. - **Example**: When rehabilitating tribal communities affected by development projects, their connection to nature should be considered to ensure policy acceptance.

Answer 239

1. Applied anthropology 2. Action anthropology 3. Cultural relativism 4. Holism

Answer 240

1. Applied anthropology 2. Action anthropology 3. Fieldwork tradition 4. Holism

Answer 241

1. Applied anthropology 2. Action anthropology 3. Fieldwork tradition 4. Cultural relativism

Answer 242

1. Felt need approach 2. Applied anthropology 3. Action anthropology 4. Cultural relativism 5. Consideration of social segmentation, stratification, and leadership 6. Study of Jajmani system

Answer 243

1. Cultural factors and acceptance of developmental programs 2. Applied anthropology 3. Action anthropology 4. Cultural relativism 5. Consideration of social segmentation, stratification, and leadership 6. Study of Jajmani system

Answer 244

1. Cultural factors and acceptance of developmental programs 2. Felt need approach 3. Action anthropology 4. Cultural relativism 5. Consideration of social segmentation, stratification, and leadership 6. Study of Jajmani system

Answer 245

1. Cultural factors and acceptance of developmental programs 2. Felt need approach 3. Applied anthropology 4. Cultural relativism 5. Consideration of social segmentation, stratification, and leadership 6. Study of Jajmani system

Answer 246

1. Cultural factors and acceptance of developmental programs 2. Felt need approach 3. Applied anthropology 4. Action anthropology 5. Consideration of social segmentation, stratification, and leadership 6. Study of Jajmani system

Answer 247

1. Cultural factors and acceptance of developmental programs 2. Felt need approach 3. Applied anthropology 4. Action anthropology 5. Cultural relativism 6. Study of Jajmani system

Answer 248

1. Cultural factors and acceptance of developmental programs 2. Felt need approach 3. Applied anthropology 4. Action anthropology 5. Cultural relativism 6. Consideration of social segmentation, stratification, and leadership

Answer 249

(1) The anthropologists should not be too rigid from the angle of his discipline. He should follow interdisciplinary approach. (2) On the basis of micro studies, they should go for macro generalisation and not micro generalisation.

Answer 250

(1) The anthropologists should not be too rigid from the angle of his discipline. He should follow interdisciplinary approach. (2) On the basis of micro studies, they should go for macro generalisation and not micro generalisation.

Answer 251

Preventing the exploitation of tribals by private traders. Offering remunerative prices for minor forest produces and surplus agricultural produces.

Answer 252

Procurement of surplus agricultural produces. Generating employment opportunities for tribal. Providing marketing and financial support to state-level tribal and forest organizations. Value addition for tribal products. Export of tribal products. Transportation, storage, and exploitation of forest produce.

Answer 253

Poor communication, lack of access, poor economies of scale, perishability of goods.

Answer 254

Operates more like a welfare organization than a marketing organization. Lack of value addition, processing, research, and development. Insufficient facilities for storage and logistics. Dysfunction or malfunctioning state federations. Few nationalized Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFP). Lack of traditional organizations like Village Panchayats.

Answer 255

Economic development of Scheduled Tribes on a sustained basis.

Answer 256

Identify economic activities important to ST for self-employment and income. Upgrade skills through self-employment, institutional and job training. Assist existing state/UT tribal finance development corporations. Monitor implementation of NSTFDC-assisted schemes.

Answer 257

Generate awareness about NSTFDC concessional schemes. Provide assistance for skill development. Offer concessional finance for income-generating schemes. Assist in market linkage of tribal produce.

Answer 258

Individuals/SHGs with annual family income double the poverty line. Cooperative societies with 80% or more members belonging to ST.

Answer 259

Term loan scheme, Aadivasi Mahila Shashaktikaran Yojana, Microcredit Scheme, SHG Schemes, Aadivasi Shiksha Rin Yojana (Education Loan).

Answer 260

Introduced in the 5th five-year plan. Aims to channelize adequate funds for tribal development and narrow the gap between tribal and non-tribal areas.

Answer 261

Integrated Tribal Development Project Areas, MADA Pockets, Primitive Tribal Groups.

Answer 262

Through state plan outlays, sectorial outlays of central ministries, special central assistance.

Answer 263

Based on pre-agricultural technology, low literacy, declining or stagnant population.

Answer 264

Great Andamanese, Jarawa, Onge, Toto, Birhor, Dongaria Khond, Asur, etc.

Answer 265

Land alienation, health issues, low literacy.

Answer 266

Since 1998-99 for PTG development.

Answer 267

Integrated tribal development agencies (ITDA), tribal research institutes, interested NGOs.

Answer 268

Delay in disbursal, multiplicity of implementing agencies, lack of a special action plan for rehabilitation.

Answer 269

Denotified tribes were originally labeled as criminal tribes under the British Criminal Tribes Act. This classification stigmatized these communities, associating them with criminal activities.

Answer 270

Bawaria, Beria, Kanjar, Biloch, Dom, Mahtam, etc.

Answer 271

The origin of these tribes is shrouded in mystery. Different views include descent from gypsies or tracing back to historical figures like Rana Pratap of Chittorgarh.

Answer 272

Concentrated in present-day Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka.

Answer 273

To tackle crimes in North India. **Thugi and Dacoity Department (1839)**: Established by the British to combat organized crime and gang violence, targeting Thugs and Dacoits in India. This measure reflected colonial control over local criminal practices.

Answer 274

Required reporting before declaring a tribe criminal.

Answer 275

Introduced minimum penalty on second conviction.

Answer 276

Empowered local governments to declare tribes criminal.

Answer 277

Consolidation of legislation. **Criminal Tribes Act (1924)**: Enforced by the British to label certain communities as "criminal tribes," subjecting them to surveillance and restrictions. This act institutionalized stigmatization and control over marginalized groups.

Answer 278

Abolished minimum punishment for second conviction.

Answer 279

Changed the name to Notified Tribes. **Criminal Tribes Act (1943, Madras)**: Empowered authorities to designate certain tribes as criminal, imposing restrictive controls and surveillance. It expanded the scope of criminalization to specific communities in Madras Presidency.

Answer 280

The Criminal Tribes Act was repealed in 1952, replaced by the Habitual Offenders Act. The tribes were termed Denotified Tribes as per the Backward Classes Commission in 1953.

Answer 281

**Poverty and Low Standard of Living**: Cultural environments marked by poverty and inadequate living conditions often increase susceptibility to crime, as economic hardships drive individuals towards illicit activities for survival.

Answer 282

(1) Poverty, low standard of living are chief causes. (2) Glorification and idealization of crime.

Answer 283

» Permanent solution to their condition depends upon improvement in” their social, economic and educational condition. > These Denotified communities appear to possess all qualities of scheduled tribes but they are not yet included in list of scheduled tribes. » Backward classes commission in 1955 submitted in its report that these tribes should be divided into ST, SC and OBC.

Answer 284

» Permanent solution to their condition depends upon improvement in” their social, economic and educational condition. > These Denotified communities appear to possess all qualities of scheduled tribes but they are not yet included in list of scheduled tribes. » Backward classes commission in 1955 submitted in its report that these tribes should be divided into ST, SC and OBC.

Answer 285

Including settlement treatments, reformative schools, and economic development schemes.

Answer 286

Are introduced for education and economic development.

Answer 287

Are provided to states for tribal development.

Answer 288

Challenges persist, and a comprehensive approach addressing social, economic, and cultural aspects is crucial for their upliftment.

Answer 289

"(a) Sociolinguistics: Study of effects of societal aspects on language use

Answer 290

"(a) Introduction: Importance of language and culture in human studies. (b) Language as Determined by Culture: Words determining thoughts

Answer 291

"Introduction: Importance of non-verbal communication in conveying social situations. Definition of Non-Verbal Communication: Process of communication through wordless messages

Answer 292

\**Types of Non-Verbal Communication:** 1. **Facial Expressions**: Convey emotions like happiness, sadness, anger, or surprise through facial movements. 2. **Gestures**: Use of hand movements, nods, or other body movements to express messages. 3. **Posture**: Body stance and positioning reflect confidence, openness, or defensiveness. 4. **Eye Contact**: Maintains engagement and can show honesty, interest, or dominance. 5. **Proxemics**: Use of personal space to indicate intimacy or formality. 6. **Haptics**: Communication through touch, such as a handshake or pat on the back. 7. **Paralanguage**: Vocal elements other than words, including tone, pitch, and volume. 8. **Appearance**: Dress and grooming affect perceptions of professionalism or status. 9. **Chronemics**: Use of time to convey punctuality, urgency, or respect.

Answer 293

"Reflection of companionship and unfriendliness **Anthropological Case Study: Silence in Japanese Culture** Anthropologist Takeo Doi's work highlights how Japanese silence signifies respect and social harmony. Silence in Japan is used to convey agreement and maintain group cohesion, reflecting cultural values of restraint."

Answer 294

"Facial expressions for happiness

Answer 295

"Examples of culturally variable gestures. Potential misunderstandings due to variations"

Answer 296

"Study of communication by non-verbal means"

Answer 297

"Importance of non-verbal communication with wide cultural significance"

Answer 298

**Background and Contributions** - **Birthplace**: Karappa, Khulna district, Bangladesh - **Education**: Honours in English - **Career**: Tribal advocacy in Ranchi - **Monograph**: *"Munda & Their Country"* **Recognitions**: - Father of Indian Ethnology - First Indian Ethnographer and Anthropologist **Contributions**: - Established formal anthropology in India - Founding father of Indian Anthropology - Inspired N.K. Bose, D.N. Majumdar - Founded *"Man in India"* (1921) - Work in: - Tribal culture - Physical anthropology - Prehistoric archaeology - Caste anthropology - Folklore - Applied anthropology - Tribal policy

Answer 299

**Background and Contributions** - **Birthplace**: Sylhet, Bangladesh (1922-2012) - **Education**: Degree and PhD in Anthropology - **Positions Held**: - Lecturer - Deputy Registrar General of Census - Professor at Visva Bharati **Contributions**: - Concepts of cultural and social change - Types of growth setups in Indian tribes - Concepts of bridge and buffer communities - Rapid rural appraisal - Concepts of infranationalism and proto-nationalism - Understanding acculturation, tribal movements, and ethnic identity - Doctoral work on Totos of Jalpaiguri - Activism in uniting Naga and Kuki communities

Answer 300

**Background and Contributions** - **Background**: - **Self-Training and Missionary Work**: Self-trained anthropologist and tribal activist; Christian missionary work - **Collaboration with Leaders**: Worked with M.K. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru - **Contributions**: - **Popularization of Anthropology**: Promoted Indian anthropology philosophy - **Monographs**: Authored studies on Baiga, Maria, and Muria tribes - **Tribal Affairs Advisory**: Advisor on tribal issues in North East India - **Isolationist Policies**: Advocated for National Parks as isolationist strategy - **Tribal Panchasheel**: Formation of the Tribal Panchasheel - **Policy Planning**: Developed policies for tribal welfare - **Protection from Missionary Influences**: Safeguarded tribal communities from missionary impacts

Answer 301

Introduction: Overview of the growth and development of anthropology in India. Phases of Development: Formulative Phase (1774-1914), Constructive Phase (1914-1950), Analytical Period (1950 onwards).

Answer 302

**Origins of World and Indian Anthropology** - **World Anthropology**: - **Timeframe**: Emerged in the 2nd half of the 19th century - **Context**: Part of global anthropology and influenced by British colonialism and imperialism - **British Colonial Contributions**: - **East India Company**: - **Purpose**: Gained knowledge about Indian society, caste, and tribes for administrative use - **Ethnological Work**: - **Description**: Produced handbooks on comparative studies of castes in Assam, Cachar, and Central Provinces - **Ethnography/Colonial Ethnography**: - **Description**: In-depth studies of specific human groups or units through monographs - **Examples**: - **The Khasi**: Colonel Gurdon - **The Nagas**: Mills - **The Chamars**: Briggs

Answer 303

**Background/Bibliography**: - **Educational Background**: Degree and doctoral dissertation in anthropology - **Notable Books**: - *The Kamar* - *Indian Village (Shamirpet, A.P.)* - *India’s Changing Village* **Contributions**: - **Tribal Study**: Research on the Kamar tribe - **Village Study**: Detailed study of Shamirpet village, A.P. - **Political Anthropology**: Contributions to the field of political anthropology - **Family Planning**: Work in family planning initiatives - **Community Development**: Research on community development programs

Answer 304

Essence of Islam: Recognition of One God, emphasis on social equality. Humanistic Concept: Fraternity, justice, charity, rejection of priesthood. Influence of Muslim Sufi-saints, spread of Sulh-e-kul, and Khankhahs.

Answer 305

**Social Impact**: - **Attraction to Islam**: Influence on deprived castes converting to Islam - **Composite Culture**: Contributions to the development of a composite culture - **Influence on Hindu Ceremonies**: Impact on Hindu rituals and ceremonies - **Social Habits and Purdah System**: Changes in social habits and the purdah system **Impact on Religion**: - **Sufi Saints**: Non-ritualistic practices and monotheism - **Akbar's Divine Faith**: Integration of diverse religious elements - **Dara Shikoh's Synthesis**: Religious synthesis and interpretation **Contributions to Medicine**: - **Unani Medicine**: Introduction and development of the Unani system of medicine **Contributions to Music and Arts**: - **Shastriya Sangeet**: Influence on classical music - **Ghazal, Thumri, Qawwali**: Contributions to these music genres - **Musical Instruments and Dance**: Innovations and contributions **Contributions to Architecture**: - **Architectural Features**: Introduction of domes, turrets, and minarets

Answer 306

Legal Reforms: Equality before law, abolition of untouchability, Hindu Marriage Act, and Hindu Succession Act.

Answer 307

Dress Patterns and Jewelry: Symbolism of Hindu culture. Language: Development of Urdu as a composite language, shared heritage of India, Urdu words integrated into Hindi.

Answer 308

**Impact of Various Religions on Indian Society** - **Dominant Religion**: Hinduism - **Dysfunctional Elements**: Casteism, untouchability - **Effect**: Acted as push factors - **Other Religions**: - **Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Jainism** - **Principles**: Offered more inclusive and egalitarian principles - **Effect**: Acted as pull factors - **Consequences**: - **Impact**: Indian society has been influenced by these religions, addressing some of the dysfunctions of Hinduism and incorporating diverse religious values

Answer 309

Four Varnas with defined functions. Discrimination against Shudras and untouchables. Social tensions arising from Varna divisions.

Answer 310

Main principles: Non-coveting, non-intoxication, non-violence, truthfulness. Ethical code: Charity, purity, self-sacrifice, truthfulness, individuality. Emphasis on an individual's responsibility for their destiny.

Answer 311

Revolutionary nature attacking Varna system. Liberal and democratic aspects. Simple and popular ethical code.

Answer 312

**Impact of Buddhism** - **Religious Impact**: - **Ethical Rituals**: Introduction of simple and ethical rituals - **Caste System**: Rejection of caste distinctions and violent rituals - **Self-Responsibility**: Encouragement of personal religious upliftment - **Social Impact**: - **Equality**: Promotion of equality and gender equality - **Social Justice**: Advocacy for social justice and protection of life forms - **Global Spread**: Expansion of Buddhism beyond India - **Economic Impact**: - **Agrarian Economy**: Boost to agrarian and mercantile activities - **Prohibition**: Ban on cow slaughter - **Political Impact**: - **Nonviolence**: Promotion of nonviolence and universal peace - **Dispute Resolution**: Democratic methods for resolving disputes in Buddhist societies - **Language and Education Impact**: - **Vernaculars**: Popularization of Indian vernacular languages - **Education**: Development of residential universities like Nalanda - **Scholarship**: Influence on scholars and intellectuals - **Art and Culture Impact**: - **Art**: Influence on ancient Indian art forms - **Culture Spread**: Dissemination of Indian culture through Buddhist monks

Answer 313

Overall, Buddhism significantly impacted Indian society in various aspects, fostering equality, peace, and cultural exchange.

Answer 314

Explanation of Saraswati's exploration of the concept of sacred complex in India.

Answer 315

Definition of sacred based on the desire to communicate with the spiritual world for Moksha. Reference to the Brahmanical concept of sacred as the foundation of these centers.

Answer 316

Insight into the Sacred Complex of Kashi. Emphasis on the diversity within the complex, encompassing Brahminical and non-Brahminical elements. Examples of sacred performances conducted by both the learned Karmakandi and illiterate untouchable 'Domto'.

Answer 317

Saraswati's observation that pilgrims from different cultural traditions converge. The role of these pilgrimage centers in integrating diverse cultural traditions into a common bond of civilization.

Answer 318

Distinction from Semitic religions like Mecca or Jerusalem in terms of full and equal interaction. Acknowledgment that Hindu pilgrimage centers do not exhibit the same level of interaction.

Answer 319

Saraswati's significant contribution to understanding the sacred complex in India. Emphasis on the role of pilgrimage centers in fostering a shared civilization despite diverse cultural traditions.

Answer 320

Definition of religious centers and the concept of sacred complex. Development of the sacred complex concept by Lalita Prasad Vidyarthi under the influence of Robert Redfield's civilization school in anthropology.

Answer 321

Overview of Robert Redfield's hypothesis stating that centers of reverence are centers of cultural diffusion. Mention of L. P. Vidyarthi's study of the sacred complex in Gaya under the influence of this hypothesis.

Answer 322

Explanation of the sacred complex as centers of civilization where pilgrims from diverse regions and cultures interact. Components of the sacred complex: sacred specialists, sacred geography, and sacred performances.

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