Untitled spreadsheet - Sheet1 (2) Flashcards

Question

7.3 (1) Combating Ethnicity

Answer 1

1. How can loyalty to the nation be fostered? - By satisfying lower-level loyalties. 2. What is crucial for combating ethnicity? - Ethnic groups' participation in modernization and developmental processes. 3. What is essential for preventing forced imposition of outside culture? - Effective implementation of constitutional rights, respecting tribal culture. 4. What is important for minority rights? - Enforcement of laws protecting minority rights.

Answer 2

Addressing ethnic conflicts requires understanding and addressing the root causes, fostering national integration through inclusive policies, and safeguarding the rights and identities of ethnic minorities.

Answer 3

Internal and external factors contribute to tribal unrest in India, posing a threat to national integration.

Answer 4

1. What are the external and internal factors leading to poverty among tribes? - Bonded labor, indebtedness, land alienation, low literacy, and poor health. Primitive agriculture, drinking, extravagance in marriages. Exploitation by moneylenders, missionaries, and government officials. Restrictive forest policies, displacement due to industrialization and urbanization.

Answer 5

1. What is the impact of British interference in tribal areas? - Examples: Kol mutiny, Santhal rebellion. 2. What contributes to political indifference? - The political elite's indifference to tribal problems. 3. What is essential for tribal welfare? - Effective implementation of constitutional provisions (5th and 6th schedules). 4. What leads to resistance? - Forceful cultural imposition (e.g., Munda rebellion). 5. What is a historical example of demand for autonomy? - Demand for autonomy by tribal people (e.g., Birsa Munda movement). 6. What is a common challenge? - Lack of tribal leadership.

Answer 6

1. What characterizes tribal unrest in the North East? - Political nature, demand for statehood or autonomy (e.g., GTA, Meghalaya, Nagaland). 2. What are the issues in Central India? - Religious and agrarian nature, against forceful conversions and exploitation of forest produce (e.g., Birsa Munda movement). 3. What is observed in South India? - Tribes too backward or few in number, but recent evidence of political mobilization in Kerala.

Answer 7

Tribal unrest arises from a complex interplay of internal and external factors, necessitating a holistic approach to address poverty, cultural imposition, and political indifference to ensure national integration.

Answer 8

Possession of a strong cultural and ethnic identity, separating one from other tribal groups. Ethnocentrism, referring to people from other tribal groups differently.

Answer 9

False sense of tribalism. Reasons: 1. Politically motivated tribal movements. 2. Multi-tribal nature of tribal movements (e.g., Jharkhand movement). 3. Weakening of tribalism compared to the past. 4. Basis of group loyalty becoming political and economic.

Answer 10

1. What are the benefits of pseudo-tribalism? - Temporary suspension of differences between tribal groups. 2. What does it facilitate? - Mobilization on economic and political agendas. 3. What does it create? - A sense of solidarity among different tribal groups.

Answer 11

Pseudo-tribalism, while not rooted in a strong cultural identity, can serve as a tool for mobilization and solidarity among different tribal groups, especially in the pursuit of common economic and political agendas.

Answer 12

India is a multiethnic nation with distinct cultural identities. Ethnicity is linked to the concept of the nation, with uniethnic and multiethnic distinctions.

Answer 13

What is the definition of an ethnic group? - Common descent, socio-cultural characteristics, and physical isolation. What is ethnicity? - It involves a 'we and they' feeling, sharing behavioral patterns, feelings, and symbols. What are the bases of ethnicity? - Race, language, religion, customs, etc.

Answer 14

What leads to the emergence of ethnic conflicts? - Unfulfilled goals, alienation, and exclusion from development. What happens if these goals aren't achieved? - Secessionism emerges. Can you provide examples of such movements? - Naga rebellion, Gond uprising, Jharkhand movement, Gorkhaland movement.

Answer 15

What are the two approaches to ethnicity? - Primordialistic (based on common descent) and Situationistic (common goals due to unique situations).

Answer 16

What is a notable case study related to ethnicity? - Haimendorf's study of Nagas.

Answer 17

What is the impact of ethnicity, conflicts, and secessionism? - Social tension, violence, dysfunctional development, demand for a distinct homeland. Provide examples. - Regionalism (e.g., Gorkhaland movement) and secessionism (e.g., Naga Movement).

Answer 18

How can ethnicity be addressed? - Foster loyalty to the nation, involve ethnic groups in modernization, implement constitutional rights, prevent cultural imposition, enforce laws protecting minority rights.

Answer 19

What is the key to addressing ethnic conflicts? - Understanding and addressing root causes, fostering national integration through inclusive policies, and safeguarding the rights and identities of ethnic minorities.

Answer 20

Internal and external factors contribute to tribal unrest, posing a threat to national integration.

Answer 21

What are the factors leading to poverty among tribes? - Bonded labor, indebtedness, land alienation, low literacy, poor health, primitive agriculture, drinking, extravagance in marriages, exploitation by moneylenders, restrictive forest policies, displacement from industrialization and urbanization.

Answer 22

Provide other causes of tribal unrest. - British interference, political elite indifference, government failure in implementing constitutional provisions, forceful cultural imposition, demand for autonomy, lack of tribal leadership.

Answer 23

Causes of Tribal Issues in Different Regions North East India: Political Nature: Demands for Statehood: Movements seeking greater autonomy or separate statehood. Autonomy: Struggles for self-governance and recognition of indigenous rights. Central India: Religious and Agrarian Issues: Opposition to Forceful Conversions: Resistance against religious conversions perceived as coercive. Exploitation of Forest Produce: Conflicts over the exploitation of natural resources and traditional lands. South India: Socio-Economic and Political Dynamics: Backwardness: Tribes often face socio-economic backwardness and marginalization. Political Mobilization: Recent political movements, especially in Kerala, highlighting tribal issues and rights.

Answer 24

What is pseudo-tribalism? - It's a false sense of tribalism, often politically and economically motivated. What are the benefits? - Temporary suspension of differences between tribal groups, mobilization on economic and political agendas, creation of solidarity among different tribal groups.

Answer 25

What is the conclusion regarding tribal unrest? - It arises from a complex interplay of internal and external factors, necessitating a holistic approach to address poverty, cultural imposition, and political indifference for national integration.

Answer 26

What is tribalism? - Possession of a strong cultural and ethnic identity, separating one from other tribal groups. What is ethnocentrism? - Referring to people from other tribal groups differently.

Answer 27

What is pseudo-tribalism? - It's a false sense of tribalism, often politically and economically motivated. What are the reasons for pseudo-tribalism? - Politically motivated tribal movements, multi-tribal nature, weakening of tribalism compared to the past, basis of group loyalty becoming political and economic.

Answer 28

What are the benefits of pseudo-tribalism? - Temporary suspension of differences between tribal groups, mobilization on economic and political agendas, creation of a sense of solidarity among different tribal groups.

Answer 29

What is the conclusion regarding pseudo-tribalism? - While not rooted in a strong cultural identity, it can serve as a tool for mobilization and solidarity among different tribal groups, especially in the pursuit of common economic and political agendas.

Answer 30

Reservation for SC in panchayat elections.

Answer 31

Reserved seats for SC in Lok Sabha.

Answer 32

Reserved seats for SC in state assemblies.

Answer 33

Empowers the President to specify castes deemed as scheduled castes in states/union territories.

Answer 34

Reservation for ST in government employment.

Answer 35

Prevention of discrimination based on caste or place of birth.

Answer 36

Equality of opportunity in employment; no discrimination based on caste.

Answer 37

Prohibits human trafficking, begar, and forced labor.

Answer 38

Freedom of religion.

Answer 39

Protection to minorities with distinct language, script, and culture.

Answer 40

Equal access to shops, public wells, etc.

Answer 41

Empowers the state to make special provisions for SC advancement.

Answer 42

Empowers the state to provide reservation for SC in employment.

Answer 43

Abolition of untouchability.

Answer 44

Promotion of educational and economic interests of SC.

Answer 45

National Commission for SC.

Answer 46

Criminalizes practice of untouchability.

Answer 47

Defines and penalizes atrocities against SC/ST. Offenses, cognizable offenses, punishments, duty of public officials, special courts, rehabilitation. Amendments in 2015 for new offenses, sexual exploitation, and victim and witness rights.

Answer 48

Upliftment through employment-oriented schemes.

Answer 49

Alternative employment for liberated scavengers.

Answer 50

Prohibits manual scavenging and provides rehabilitation.

Answer 51

Supports SC families for improved income.

Answer 52

Ensures targeted benefits for SC in various development sectors.

Answer 53

Reserves seats for ST in Lok Sabha.

Answer 54

Reserves seats for ST in state assemblies.

Answer 55

Provides reservation for ST in services and posts in government employment.

Answer 56

Provides for reservation for ST in panchayat elections.

Answer 57

Mandates a minister in charge of tribal welfare in states of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Madhya Pradesh.

Answer 58

Empowers the President to specify tribes or tribal communities deemed to be scheduled tribes in a particular state or union territory.

Answer 59

Contains special provisions with respect to tribal areas and hill areas of Nagaland, Assam, and Manipur.

Answer 60

Prevents discrimination on the basis of caste or place of birth.

Answer 61

Ensures equality of opportunity in employment; prohibits discrimination on the ground of caste.

Answer 62

Prohibits traffic in human beings, begar, and other forms of forced labor.

Answer 63

Ensures freedom of religion.

Answer 64

Provides protection to linguistic minorities.

Answer 65

Permits the restriction of free movement within the country to protect the interests of STs.

Answer 66

Guarantees equal access to shops, public wells, etc.

Answer 67

Empowers the state to make special provisions for the advancement of ST.

Answer 68

Empowers the state to provide reservation for ST in employment and appointment to any office under the state.

Answer 69

Provides for the promotion of educational and economic interests of ST.

Answer 70

Establishes the National Commission for ST.

Answer 71

Facilitates grants-in-aid to states for the promotion and welfare of STs.

Answer 72

Aim: Improve educational and socio-economic conditions of OBCs/DNTs/EBCs, enabling them to start income-generating activities or gain employment. Eligibility: Beneficiaries with a total family income not exceeding Rs. 1.00 lakh per annum.

Answer 73

Objective: Motivate OBC children studying at the pre-matric stage. Eligibility: Income ceiling for eligibility is Rs. 2,50,000 per annum. Rates: Day Scholars (Class I to X): Rs. 100/- p.m for 10 months. Hostellers (Class III to X): Rs. 500/- p.m for 10 months. Ad-hoc grant of Rs. 500/- per student per annum.

Answer 74

Objective: Provide financial assistance to OBC students studying at post-matriculation or post-secondary stage. Eligibility: Parents/guardians' income not exceeding Rs. 1.00 lakh per annum. Rates: Vary based on the course, ranging from Rs. 750 to Rs. 260 per month for hostellers.

Answer 75

Aim: Provide financial assistance for OBC students pursuing M.Phil and Ph.D. Fellowships: 300 Junior Research Fellowships and 300 Senior Research Fellowships per year. Rates: JRF - Rs. 25,000 per month, SRF - Rs. 28,000 per month.

Answer 76

Objective: Provide hostel facilities to socially and educationally backward class students for secondary and higher education.

Answer 77

Objective: Provide quality coaching to economically disadvantaged SCs and OBCs for competitive exams.

Answer 78

Loans for pursuing general/professional/technical courses at graduate and higher levels. Maximum loan limit: Rs. 10 lakh in India and Rs. 20 lakh abroad.

Answer 79

Loan eligibility for members of backward classes with an annual family income below double the poverty line.

Answer 80

Schemes like New Swarnima for Women, Saksham, and ShilpSampada aim at providing loans and training for self-employment.

Answer 81

Various microfinance schemes like Micro Finance Scheme, Mahila Samriddhi Yojana, and KrishiSampada to provide loans for specific purposes.

Answer 82

Objective: Provide training and financial assistance to make the target group self-dependent in traditional and technical occupations and entrepreneurship.

Answer 83

1. Untouchability and Lowest Status: SCs are subjected to untouchability, denying them basic human rights, freedom of movement, and access to amenities. In some instances, SC individuals had to announce their presence in public places. 2. Atrocities: SCs face atrocities, reflecting discrimination and violence against them. 3. Prohibition from Public Places: SC houses are often located at the periphery of villages, and they are prohibited from using public places. 4. Denial of Customs: SCs are denied the practice of customs enjoyed by higher castes, such as riding horses during marriage processions or playing instruments in certain regions.

Answer 84

1. Forbidden from Sacred Texts: According to Hindu traditions, SC members were historically forbidden from studying sacred texts. In some rural areas, they still face restrictions on attending schools.

Answer 85

1. Property Ownership Restrictions: Traditionally, SCs were denied property ownership in certain regions, leading to bonded labor. 2. Occupational Restrictions: Attempts by SCs to change their traditional occupations face strong opposition from higher castes, contributing to their economic struggles.

Answer 86

1. Exclusion from Traditional Bodies: SCs historically had no role in traditional bodies like village panchayats. Even today, their political representation is limited, with real power often lying in the hands of upper-caste members.

Answer 87

The term 'Backward Classes' includes Scheduled Tribes (STs), Scheduled Castes (SCs), Denotified Tribes, and Other Backward Classes (OBCs). The Constitution of India provides specific safeguards and measures to uplift these classes due to their historical disadvantages. 1. Article 340: Appointment of Commission: Allows the President to appoint a Commission to investigate the conditions of socially and educationally backward classes. The Commission's recommendations aim to remove difficulties and improve conditions, influencing grants made by the Union or any state. The Mandal Commission, appointed in 1978, is a notable example. 2. Article 15(4): Reservation Provision: Allows the state to make provisions for the advancement of socially and economically backward classes, including OBCs, in matters of education. 3. Article 16(4): Reservation in Public Employment: Permits the state to reserve vacancies in public services for any backward class that is not adequately represented. 4. Article 16(4B): Special Provision for Backlog Vacancies: Allows the state to consider unfilled vacancies reserved for backward classes as a separate class not subject to a 50% reservation limit. 5. National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC): Established in 1993, the NCBC considers inclusions/exclusions from backward class lists and advises the Central Government on reservations. 6. Constitution (93rd Amendment) Act, 2005: Article 15(5) enables the state to make special provisions for OBCs in private educational institutions. 7. Article 338B: National Commission for Backward Classes (Yet to be inserted): This amendment, when inserted, will provide constitutional status to the National Commission for Backward Classes. These constitutional safeguards, along with the Mandal Commission's recommendations, aim to address historical disadvantages faced by OBCs and promote their educational and economic interests.

Answer 88

The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013, commonly known as the Land Acquisition Act 2013, was introduced to replace the British-era Land Acquisition Act of 1894.

Answer 89

1. Fair Compensation: Ensure fair compensation for affected families. 2. Consultation and Least Disturbance: Conduct acquisition in consultation with local self-government and gram sabhas, causing minimal disturbance to landowners and affected families. 3. Rehabilitation and Resettlement: Provide adequate provisions for rehabilitation and resettlement. 4. Partnership in Development: Ensure that affected persons become partners in development, leading to an improvement in their post-acquisition social and economic status.

Answer 90

--- Key Provisions of the Land Acquisition Act 1. **Definition of Public Purpose**: Includes strategic projects, national security, defense, infrastructure, housing for low-income groups, and government schemes. 2. **Consent Clause**: Requires consent from affected families for private companies; different thresholds for public-private projects. 3. **Emergency Acquisition**: Expedited process for national defense, security, and disaster rehabilitation. 4. **Limits on Acquisition**: No acquisition of multi-cropped areas; equivalent wasteland must be developed. Linear projects are exempt from some limits. 5. **Compensation**: Four times market value in rural areas, twice in urban areas. Based on higher of minimum land value (Indian Stamp Act) or average sale price in last 3 years. 6. **Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Authority**: Adjudicates matters with civil court-like authority. 7. **Social Impact Assessment**: Mandatory local consultation before acquisition; expert committee approval required, but government can override. 8. **Provision for SC/STs**: Their land can only be acquired under exceptional circumstances with prior consent; development plan must start within 5 years. 9. **Unused Land**: Land acquired for one purpose cannot be repurposed. If unused for 5 years, it must be returned to the original owner. --- s!

Answer 91

**Challenges in Land Acquisition and Compensation** 1. **Consent of Affected Families**: - **Issue**: Broad definition of 'affected families' complicates consent acquisition, particularly for private projects. 2. **Exemption to 13 Acts**: - **Issue**: One-year exemption, renewable amendments, and inconsistent implementation create challenges. 3. **Complex Procedure**: - **Issue**: Lengthy Social Impact Assessment and expert committee approval discourage investment. 4. **High Cost of Acquisition**: - **Issue**: High compensation costs affect investment sentiment and delay infrastructure projects. 5. **Ordinance Route**: - **Issue**: Use of ordinances for exemptions reflects difficulties in parliamentary procedures. 6. **Amendments in 2015 Bill**: - **Issue**: Safeguard dilution, removal of consent clause for some projects, and provision alterations raise concerns.

Answer 92

**Legal Challenges and Amendments** 1. **Petitions Against State Amendments**: - **States Involved**: Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Jharkhand, Tamil Nadu - **Issue**: Amendments challenged for conflicting with the central law's 'basic structure.' 2. **Exemptions for Linear Projects**: - **Changes**: Ordinances exempting linear projects from: - Consent provisions - Social impact assessments - Objections by affected citizens 3. **Violation of Article 21**: - **Claim**: State amendments violate Article 21 - **Article 21**: Guarantees the right to live with dignity and personal liberty

Answer 93

While a streamlined land acquisition process is essential for development, the concerns of affected communities, particularly farmers, must be addressed to prevent protests and dissatisfaction. Balancing development goals with social and environmental considerations is crucial for sustainable and inclusive growth.

Answer 94

The assimilationist approach aimed at transforming tribal communities into a new societal structure and was a response to the isolationist approach advocated by Verrier Elwin and others.

Answer 95

]Proponents of the assimilationist approach in anthropology include Robert E. Park and Milton M. Gordon, who studied how minority groups integrate into dominant cultures through social, cultural, and structural assimilation.

Answer 96

The assimilationist approach had religious and voluntary agency components. Missionaries sought to convert tribal communities to a different faith

Answer 97

The assimilationist approach led to a break with tribal tradition

Answer 98

The assimilationist approach resulted in: 1. **Cultural Erosion**: Loss of traditional practices and customs. 2. **Language Decline**: Extinction of native languages. 3. **Marginalization**: Increased social and economic marginalization of indigenous communities. 4. **Identity Disruption**: Fragmentation of cultural identities and community bonds.

Answer 99

The assimilationist approach faced criticism for being perceived as forced assimilation and cultural authoritarianism.

Answer 100

Verrier Elwin criticized figures like Thakkar Bappa

Answer 101

Pandit Nehru

Answer 102

The assimilationist approach was replaced by the integrationist approach of Tribal Panchasheel

Answer 103

The shift to the integrationist approach highlights the importance of considering the unique cultural and historical contexts of tribal populations in development strategies.

Answer 104

A tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name, occupying common territory, speaking a common dialect, joint ownership of resources, practicing primitive agriculture, and sharing a religion and political system. They live in relatively isolated geographical areas.

Answer 105

Tribal societies are part of a larger community or population and often live near market or metropolitan capitals. In contrast, peasant societies live in relatively isolated geographical areas with minimal contact with the outside world.

Answer 106

Means of production in tribal societies are controlled by special executive/administrators/rulers.

Answer 107

and how does it differ from peasant societies?

Answer 108

No, there is no incentive for surplus production in tribal societies.

Answer 109

In peasant societies, surplus productions are incentivized and transferred to a dominant group of rulers who use it for their own standard of living.

Answer 110

Tribal societies engage in primitive agriculture or shifting cultivation.

Answer 111

Tribal societies are economically self-sufficient and independent of subjugation, while economic exploitation and subjugation of peasants occur through tax, rent, interest, and terms of trade.

Answer 112

Sacred Groves are community-protected forest fragments with significant religious connotations. They range from small patches to acres, dedicated to local folk deities. These groves play a crucial role in conserving flora and fauna diversity sustainably.

Answer 113

Often associated with ponds, streams, or springs, meeting water needs and recharging aquifers. Indian sacred groves linked with temples, monasteries, shrines, or burial grounds.

Answer 114

1. Local Village Sacred Groves: Managed by the entire village. 2. Regional Sacred Groves: Managed by Temple Trust (e.g., Sabarimala). 3. Pan India Sacred Groves: Large groves visited globally, maintained by Temple Trusts. 4. Sacred Groves as Ancestral Spirits' Abode: Serving as both burial grounds and deity locations.

Answer 115

Traditional Uses: Medicinal plants, replenishable resources, water source, and prevention of soil erosion. Modern Uses: Biodiversity hotspots, gene pools for rare species, and acting as 'lungs' in urban landscapes.

Answer 116

Tribes set aside sanctified forest areas, protecting them with rules and customs. Bishnoi tribes in Rajasthan manage sacred groves called 'orans.' Forest-dwelling tribes like Bodo and Rabha maintain sacred groves known as 'Than.'

Answer 117

Urbanization, encroachment, development projects, ignoring local management rights, over-exploitation, and invasive species. 'Sanskritization' transforming nature worship into formal Hindu practice.

Answer 118

Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002: Introduces 'community reserve' category. Emphasis on local community administration, NGO initiatives, and awareness campaigns.

Answer 119

State Medicinal Plant Board of Kerala undertaking projects for Sacred Groves' protection.

Answer 120

Imperial Gazette of India defines a tribe as a group of families with a common name, language, residing in a common area, and observing marriage taboos.

Answer 121

1. 8.6% of the Indian population is tribal (2011 census). 2. Divided into three major ethnic groups: Mongoloid, Negroid, and Proto-Australoid. 3. Linguistically divided into Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic, and Tibeto-Chinese. 4. Geographical distribution: Concentrated in the northeast, central India, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. 5. Socioeconomic features: Patriarchal/matriarchal societies, polygamous/monogamous marriages, kinship-based, non-monetized economy, primitive agriculture, and varied religious beliefs.

Answer 122

Scheduled Tribes are recognized in Article 342.

Answer 123

Illiteracy, low literacy, land alienation, malnutrition, indebtedness, joblessness.

Answer 124

Various schemes, laws, policies, and programs, including the Forest Rights Act and Tribal Sub Plan.

Answer 125

Racial admixture due to economic factors, religious persecution, and immigrants not returning.

Answer 126

1. Negrito: Small head, broad flat nose, short stature, dark brown skin, woolly hair (e.g., Kadars, Irula). 2. Proto Australoid: Dolichocephalic head, platyrrhine nose, short stature, dark brown skin (e.g., Baiga, Maler). 3. Mongoloid: Epicanthic folds, prominent cheekbones, medium stature, light brown skin. Palaco-Mongoloid (e.g., Senama Naga, Lepchas). Tibeto-Mongoloid (e.g., Tibetans of Sikkim). 2. Certainly! Here is Guha’s classification of Indian tribes with only the main classes and subtypes: 1. **Negrito** - No subtypes listed 2. **Proto-Australoid** - No subtypes listed 3. **Mongoloid** - Palaeo-Mongoloid (Long-Headed) - Palaeo-Mongoloid (Broad-Headed) - Tibeto-Mongoloid 4. **Mediterranean** - Palaeo-Mediterranean - Mediterranean - Oriental 5. **Western Brachycephals** - Alpinoid - Dinaric - Armenoid

Answer 127

Risley divided into Dravidians and Mongoloids, Sarkar into Australoid, Mundari speakers, Far Easterners, and Mongolian.

Answer 128

1. Homogeneous communities of hunters, trappers, and collectors. 2. Homogeneous communities of hunters, trappers, and agriculturists. 3. Graded society of hunters, trappers, agriculturists, and artisans. 4. The herdsmen. 5. Homogeneous hunters and herdsmen. 6. Ethnically stratified cattle breeders and traders. 7. Socially graded herdsmen with hunting, agricultural, and artisan population.

Answer 129

1. Tribes hunting in forests. 2. Tribes engaged in hilly cultivation. 3. Tribes engaged in cultivation on leveled (plain) land. 4. Simple artisan tribes. 5. Pastoral tribes. 6. Tribes living as folk artists. 7. Agricultural and non-agricultural labor-oriented tribes. 8. Tribes engaged in service and trade.

Answer 130

Cultural invasion, Hinduization, Christianization, Islamization, migration to urban areas, British colonization, lack of documentation.

Answer 131

6 severely endangered languages, 42 critically endangered, 5 extinct.

Answer 132

Majhi, Mohali, Koro, Sidi, Dimasa.

Answer 133

Efforts Needed to Preserve Tribal Languages ├── Documentation ├── Linguistic Research ├── Community Engagement ├── Education Programs ├── Bilingual Education ├── Language Revitalization └── Policy Support

Answer 134

Here's the history of local self-government in India represented as a flowchart: ``` Ancient India ├── Village Administration ├── Sabhas and Samitis └── Chola Dynasty Medieval India └── Mughal Period Colonial Period ├── British East India Company ├── Lord Ripon's Resolution (1882) ├── Municipal Acts ├── Government of India Act, 1919 └── Government of India Act, 1935 Post-Independence Period ├── Constitutional Provisions (1950) ├── Community Development Program (1952) ├── Balwantrai Mehta Committee (1957) ├── Ashok Mehta Committee (1978) └── 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments (1992) ├── Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) └── Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) Modern Period ├── Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) ├── Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) └── Contemporary Reforms ```

Answer 135

Formally introduced for decentralization and people's participation. Salient features include recognition of local bodies in the constitution, three-tier system of Panchayats, direct elections, reserved seats, and a five-year term. Gram Sabhas, as the basic unit, promote democratic participation.

Answer 136

Consequences of Grassroots Democracy 1. **Increased Participation**: Previously excluded sections, such as tribals and lower castes, now have greater involvement. 2. **Women's Involvement**: More women participate in public life through elections. 3. **Strengthening Democracy**: Grassroots democracy is seen as essential for national and state-level democracy. 4. **Decentralized Planning**: Popularization of decentralized planning and people's participation. 5. **Political Awareness**: The rural population becomes politically active and informed. 6. **Innovative Ideas**: Emergence of concepts like social audit and Jan Sunawai. 7. **Voluntary Sector**: Strengthening of the voluntary sector. 8. **Future Leaders**: Local bodies act as nurseries for future leaders.

Answer 137

1. Lack of political will for effective implementation. 2. Insufficient public awareness and vigilance. 3. Politicization of rural issues. 4. Influence of dominant castes on PRI workings. 5. Limited power for women, with real influence held by male family members. 6. Disparities based on caste, class, and gender.

Answer 138

Medium of mass communication through which messages are conveyed.

Answer 139

1. Print: Newspapers, magazines, posters, pamphlets. 2. Audio: Radio, FM. 3. Audio-Visual: TV, Film. 4. Folk Media: Dance, Drama, Music, Poetry. 5. Participative Techniques: Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA).

Answer 140

Strict regulations may lead to ineffective and less credible media, while loose regulations can result in the domination of commercial media and paid news.

Answer 141

1. Making people aware of their rights and political issues. 2. Encouraging participation and debate. 3. Drawing attention to institutional failings. 4. Pressuring for increased government spending, human rights, and poverty elimination. 5. Highlighting rural issues.

Answer 142

1. Pluralistic media ownership. 2. Representativeness. 3. Accessibility to the poor and vulnerable. 4. Impartiality. 5. Accuracy and balance. 6. Freedom and regulations. 7. Effectiveness in investigating the government.

Answer 143

1. Imperial Gazetteers of India: A group with a common name, language, area, and marriage taboos. 2. D. N. Majumdar: Group with a common language, area, marriage and occupational taboos, and well-developed reciprocal exchange. 3. W.H.R Rivers: A simple social group with a common dialect, working together during war. 4. B. K. Royburman (Most accepted): A stage of social formation in an evolutionary scheme.

Answer 144

1. 8.6% of the Indian population is tribal. 2. Divided into Mongoloid, Negroid, and Proto Australoid ethnic groups. 3. Linguistically divided into Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic, and Tibeto-Chinese. 4. Geographically spread across India, concentrated in the northeast, central India, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. 5. Socioeconomic features: Patriarchal or matriarchal, polygamous or monogamous marriages, kinship-based society, non-monetized economy, primitive agriculture, belief in supernatural.

Answer 145

Concepts associated with the civilizational school in anthropology, introduced by Robert Redfield. Folk-Urban continuum explains the interaction between civilizations. Part of civilization, involving the transmission of values and behaviors over time.

Answer 146

LT is a small group with shared community life. Distinctive features include common culture, collective consciousness, small size, oral record, magico-religious themes, animism, and self-sufficient economy.

Answer 147

Educated, national in nature, maintaining tradition in writing through texts and epics. Symbols include temples, muth, sacred rivers, etc. Cultural norms are organized and explained rationally. Sometimes contemptuous towards little communities. Multiple great communities exist alongside thousands of little communities.

Answer 148

Universalization involves elements of LT moving upward, getting elaborated, and gaining wider acceptability. Parochialisation is the downward devolution of GT elements, integrating with LT. Interaction occurs at sacred places through these processes. The Tribe-Caste Continuum represents the interaction between LT and GT.

Answer 149

Analytical tools for understanding civilization. MacKim Marriot and Milton Singer applied these concepts in Indian civilization. GT considered superior morally, with the capacity to outclass LT. Marriott highlighted universalization and parochialisation for understanding interaction.

Answer 150

Dichotomous division of Indian civilization is challenging due to cultural diversity. S. C. Dubey suggests six traditions in Indian civilization. GT and LT cannot be neatly differentiated along rural-urban lines. Difficulty in defining GT and LT precisely, as both are incomplete by themselves.

Answer 151

Despite limitations, the concepts of LT and GT are useful for understanding Indian civilization.

Answer 152

Universalization involves carrying forward LT materials to GT. Elements move upward, get elaborated, and gain wider acceptability. Examples include the worship of Santoshi Maa and the universalization of the saluno festival. Parochialisation involves the downward devolution of GT elements into LT. Elements go down, mix with LT, and become localized. Examples include the parochialisation of Navaratri Festival to become Navaratha Devi worship. Interaction between LT and GT occurs at sacred complexes through universalization and parochialisation. Describes cultural synchronization, adaptation, and innovation by local communities. Criticism of Universalization and Parochialisation: Ideally, the flow between LT and GT should be circular. Erroneous if implying that if a tradition passes from GT to LT, it must be localized. Indian folk culture is not confined to a single village or region.

Answer 153

Zoroastrians, also known as Parsis, migrated to India in the 8th century AD, escaping religious persecution in Iran. Comprise less than 0.05% of India's population, with about 75% of the global Zoroastrian population settled in India. Concentrated mainly in Maharashtra and Gujarat, with significant contributions to India's economy, education, and advanced fields.

Answer 154

Despite being a small community, Parsis have made significant contributions to various fields. Notable figures like Dadabhai Naoroji and Firoz Shah Mehta provided national leadership during the liberation struggle. Parsi business houses contribute generously to educational and social institutions.

Answer 155

The Parsi community in India faces a decline in population due to late marriages, with birth rates approaching replacement levels. The government initiated the Jiyo Parsi Scheme to address the declining population.

Answer 156

Zoroastrians in India form an urban middle class, economically well-off, highly literate, and culturally adaptive. Despite social insulation and endogamy, their contributions make them acceptable in Indian society.

Answer 157

Discuss Various Indigenous and Exogenous Processes of Socio-Cultural Change in Indian Society.

Answer 158

Process where lower Hindu castes or tribal groups adopt customs, rituals, and ideologies of higher castes. Collective mobility within the caste system, leading to positional change. Preconditions include economic improvement, change in self-image, closure of alternative avenues, and lack of organized opposition. Examples include the Sanskritisation of Chamars in U.P.

Answer 159

Sociocultural change due to contact with Western countries, especially British. Involves technological and ideological dimensions. Impact on Indian society includes the disintegration of joint families, derecognition of caste inequality, secularization of education, and a shift towards class orientation. Scholars prefer the term modernization to avoid colonial connotations.

Answer 160

Interactive process of economic growth and social change, involving industrialization, humanism, rationality, and urbanization. Differentiated from Westernization due to its non-threatening nature to cultural identity.

Answer 161

Universalization involves carrying forward materials and culture from little tradition to great tradition. Parochialization is the downward devolution of great tradition elements into little tradition. Interaction occurs at sacred complexes, resulting in a Tribe-Caste Continuum.

Answer 162

Increased participation of excluded sections (tribals, lower castes, women) in democratic processes. Empowers women and promotes grassroots democracy.

Answer 163

Creates awareness of rights, political issues, and good governance. Highlights institutional failings and pressures for increased government spending, human rights, and poverty elimination.

Answer 164

Process where lower castes or tribal groups adopt the customs and way of life of higher castes. Involves collective mobility within the caste system, leading to positional change. Preconditions include economic improvement, change in self-image, closure of alternative avenues, and lack of organized opposition. Examples include the Sanskritisation of Chamars in U.P. Role as a safety valve for the caste system, keeping tensions within manageable levels.

Answer 165

Sikh population in India: 2.08 crore (1.7% of the total population as per 2011 census). Predominantly in Punjab (78%), with significant populations in UP, Rajasthan, and Delhi.

Answer 166

Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak, emerged 400 years ago, rejecting Hinduism and Islam. Emphasizes equalitarianism, but caste system is still present.

Answer 167

Division between higher caste Saradars and lower caste converters (Mazabis). Endogamous marriages, with some acceptance of women from lower castes marrying higher caste men. All Sikhs, regardless of caste, pray in Gurudwara.

Answer 168

Many Sikhs were Zamindars and Jagirdars before partition. Land reforms and partition led to changes, with urban Sikhs engaged in trade, commerce, and defense services.

Answer 169

Creation of Punjab as a separate state, but challenges persist due to the intertwining of Sikh religion and politics. Ongoing concerns about assimilation by Hindus.

Answer 170

Concentrated and dispersed across states, with significant populations in UP, Jammu & Kashmir, Lakshadweep, Assam, Bihar, Kerala, and West Bengal.

Answer 171

14.2% of the country's population, making them the second-largest religious group. Challenges in literacy (60%) and work participation rates (30%).

Answer 172

Theoretical rejection of caste system, but it exists among Muslims. Endogamy, jajmani system, untouchability, and caste panchayats are prevalent.

Answer 173

Economically backward, with high poverty rates (43% below the poverty line). Majority are self-employed, with significant representation in agriculture in rural areas.

Answer 174

Below national average literacy, low representation in government jobs.

Answer 175

Poverty, communal tensions, lack of representation in civil services, separatism, politicization of minorities, backwardness, and issues related to a uniform civil code.

Answer 176

Constitutional provisions (Article 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 350 A, 350 B). National Commission for Minorities, National Minorities Development and Finance Corporation, various schemes, and initiatives.

Answer 177

As of Census 2011, Buddhists constitute 0.70% (84 lakh) of India's population. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's initiative in Maharashtra significantly increased the Buddhist population. 87% are converts, mainly Dalits escaping Hindu caste oppression; 13% from traditional communities in the northeast and northern Himalayan regions. Sex ratio among Buddhists in 2011 was 965 females per 1,000 males.

Answer 178

Buddhists historically had a two-tier structure, not following the conventional four-fold Varna system. Upper tier included Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and certain Gruhapatis; lower tier included tribal and marginal groups. Division into Mahayana and Hinayana based on doctrinal differences, not societal gradations.

Answer 179

Varied economic categories among Buddhists, with some in traditional occupations. Urban Buddhists engaged in government and private jobs. Neo-Buddhists, especially Mahar in Maharashtra and Scheduled Castes in AP, UP & MP, are small farmers, agricultural workers, and daily wage earners.

Answer 180

Buddhists have a literacy rate of 81.29%, higher than the national average of 72.98%. Variations exist, with lower literacy rates in traditional communities of the northeast. Strong conversion movements in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, and Uttar Pradesh.

Answer 181

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's conversion movement in 1956 led to approximately 4 lakhs converting to Buddhism. Spread to MP, Punjab, and UP, areas influenced by the All India SC Federation.

Answer 182

1. Declining population: From 0.8% in 2001 to 0.7% in 2011. 2. Fear of Buddhist extremism, particularly in the context of conflicts in Myanmar and Sri Lanka. 3. Religious violence between Dalit converts and Hindus (e.g., Bhima Koregav violence in Maharashtra, Saharanpur violence in U.P.). 4. High poverty and unemployment among Neo-Buddhists. 5. Persistence of caste-based discrimination within Buddhism.

Answer 183

The term 'Little Republics' used by British administrator Charles Metcalfe to describe autonomy of Indian villages.

Answer 184

Early scholars like Henry Maine and Charles Metcalfe exaggerated village autonomy.

Answer 185

Language is a crucial part of human civilization and cultural expression.

Answer 186

Examples: Discrimination against Bengali in Assam, Kannada in Andhra Pradesh.

Answer 187

Examples: Urdu in U.P. & Bihar, Maithili in North Bihar face discriminatory policies despite official recognition.

Answer 188

Discriminatory and hostile attitude in job competitions and economic activities in various states.

Answer 189

Emergence of political forces among linguistic minorities due to grievances.

Answer 190

Formal requests by minorities for mother tongue instruction face challenges.

Answer 191

Lack of script and resources.

Answer 192

Initiatives by both the central and state governments to address linguistic minority issues.

Answer 193

Encouraging and promoting instruction in mother tongues.

Answer 194

Using Devnagari script for tribal languages, following the example of Bodo and Munda languages.

Answer 195

Implementing policies and development programs to support linguistic minorities.

Answer 196

Ensuring the security of linguistic minorities to foster national integration.

Answer 197

Recognizing the importance of emotional integration for national unity, emphasizing the protection of language, culture, and customs.

Answer 198

As of Census 2011, Buddhists constitute 0.70% (84 lakh) of India's population.

Answer 199

Buddhists historically had a two-tier structure, not following the conventional four-fold Varna system. Social Status of Buddhists in Modern India ├── Education and Employment Opportunities: Increasing access, particularly in urban areas. ├── Economic Status: Varied, with some achieving middle-class status. ├── Caste Identity: Historically disadvantaged, striving for equality. ├── Political Representation: Limited, efforts for greater inclusion ongoing. ├── Cultural Influence: Buddhist festivals and practices maintained. ├── Social Perceptions: Evolving, with recognition of contributions.

Answer 200

Varied economic categories among Buddhists, with some in traditional occupations.

Answer 201

Buddhists have a literacy rate of 81.29%, higher than the national average of 72.98%.

Answer 202

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's conversion movement in 1956 led to approximately 4 lakhs converting to Buddhism.

Answer 203

Declining population: From 0.8% in 2001 to 0.7% in 2011.

Answer 204

**Introduction:**\n- Language is a crucial part of human civilization and cultural expression.\n- Linguistic diversity in India: Grierson’s survey identified 179 languages and 544 dialects.\n- Post-Independence language problems: Official language challenges, demand for linguistic reorganization, and minority language status.\n- Constitutional provisions: Article 29, 30, 347, 350, and examples like Koro, Dimsa, Gond, Mahali.\n\n**Problems of Linguistic Minorities:**\n1. **Centre's Inability to Protect:**\n - Examples: Discrimination against Bengali in Assam, Kannada in Andhra Pradesh.\n \n2. **Continued Discriminatory Policies:**\n - Examples: Urdu in U.P. & Bihar, Maithili in North Bihar face discriminatory policies despite official recognition.\n\n3. **Hostility in Economic Activities:**\n - Discriminatory and hostile attitude in job competitions and economic activities in various states.\n \n4. **Separatist Tendencies:**\n - Emergence of political forces among linguistic minorities due to grievances.\n \n5. **Challenges in Mother Tongue Instruction:**\n - Formal requests by minorities for mother tongue instruction face challenges.\n - Issues: Adequate number of children, lack of teachers and textbooks, ignorance of state governments.\n\n6. **Problems of Tribal Languages:**\n - Lack of script and resources.\n - Challenges in textbooks and teacher availability.\n\n**Solutions:**\n1. **Proactive Centre and State:**\n - Initiatives by both the central and state governments to address linguistic minority issues.\n\n2. **Promotion of Mother Tongue Instruction:**\n - Encouraging and promoting instruction in mother tongues.\n\n3. **Adoption of Devnagari Script:**\n - Using Devnagari script for tribal languages, following the example of Bodo and Munda languages.\n\n4. **Government Policies and Programs:**\n - Implementing policies and development programs to support linguistic minorities.\n\n5. **Providing Security:**\n - Ensuring the security of linguistic minorities to foster national integration.\n\n6. **Emotional Integration:**\n - Recognizing the importance of emotional integration for national unity, emphasizing the protection of language, culture, and customs.\n\n*Note: The text has been condensed for brevity while retaining key information.*

Answer 205

The term 'Little Republics' was used by British administrator Charles Metcalfe to describe the autonomy of Indian villages. Before British rule, Indian villages enjoyed autonomy due to poor communication facilities. The concept implies that villages were almost independent, self-sufficient entities governing themselves.\n\n**Village Autonomy:**\n- Scholars like Henry Maine and Charles Metcalfe exaggerated the concept of village autonomy.\n- Indian villages were portrayed as isolated, closed systems, monolithic, non-changing, and self-sufficient.\n\n**Indian Villages as 'Little Republics':**\n- In the early 19th century, British administrators, including Charles Metcalfe, viewed Indian villages as 'little republics.'\n- They believed villages had a simple form of government, were economically self-sufficient, and had minimal interference from higher political authorities.\n- Villages contributed a share of produce to the king and provided men for wars, but they were otherwise unconcerned about the ruling authority.\n\n**Views Against the Concept:**\n- Research by historians, sociologists, and anthropologists has challenged the 'Little Republics' notion.\n- Villagers were concerned about who sat on the throne, and they rebelled against oppressive kings.\n- Indian villages were not self-sufficient, maintaining links with larger society and centers of civilization.\n- British administration reduced village power, established law courts, and implemented uniform laws, integrating villages into wider society.\n- Post-independence, democracy and universal adult franchise allowed villages to participate in state affairs.\n\n**Conclusion:**\n- Despite external linkages, Indian villages remain fundamental social units with a sense of common identity.\n- However, treating villages as 'little republics' is incorrect, as they have always been part of wider society.\n- Villages have evolved, and their role in state affairs has increased, challenging the notion of complete autonomy.

Answer 206

**Background:**\n- Early scholars like Henry Maine and Charles Metcalfe exaggerated village autonomy.\n- Lewis' concept emerged from a comparative study of Ranikhera in North India and Tepoztlan in Mexico.\n\n**Rural Cosmopolitanism:**\n- Lewis described Indian villages as part of multiple inter-village networks, contrasting with inward-looking Mexican villages.\n- Indian villages had complex social relations based on caste, kinship, marriage, trade, pilgrimage, and administrative and political organization.\n- Each Indian village was linked to other villages in its region and towns and cities, creating a form of 'Rural Cosmopolitanism.'\n\n**Conclusion:**\n- The concept challenges the idea of Indian villages as 'Little Republics.'\n- Villagers' social relations extended beyond the village, broadening cultural horizons.\n- 'Rural Cosmopolitanism' portrays Indian villages as interconnected and integral parts of larger social networks.

Answer 207

Globalization refers to the intensification of worldwide social relations, shaping local happenings by events occurring globally. Indian villages, traditionally characterized by joint families, the caste system, and subsistence economy, have experienced both positive and negative impacts due to globalization.

Answer 208

Market Economy, Monetization, Mechanization, and Technological Innovations

Answer 209

Modernization and Westernization, Secularization

Answer 210

Globalization has led to a transformation in Indian villages, transitioning from Gemeinshaft (communal sense of belonging) to Geselishaft (self-interest). While some positive changes have occurred, challenges like rural-urban migration, social polarization, and environmental issues need careful consideration for sustainable development.

Answer 211

Concept of Nation and State: Nation: A psycho-cultural notion where people behave as a group due to cultural sharing. May or may not have boundaries. State: A politico-legal concept with defined boundaries. When nation and state boundaries align, it becomes a nation-state. Traditionally, ethnicity was the basis, but in multiethnic countries like India, this doesn't apply. Concept of Tribe: A group of families with geographical isolation, common language, and shared rituals and taboos. Types of Nation States: 1. Uniethnic: Based on one ethnic group (e.g., European countries). 2. Multiethnic: Nation with multiple ethnic identities (e.g., India). Condition of Tribes in Different Nation States: 1. Erstwhile USSR: Initially granted reservation and better status, but later faced revolts (e.g., Khurds, Chechans). 2. USA and Australia: Indigenous groups faced discrimination, killings, and persecution. Tribes like Red Indians and Zumi Indians were confined to sanctuaries. 3. Africa and Saudi Arabia: Tribes have better conditions, and Saudi Arabia is considered a tribal nation-state. 4. India: Initially autonomous, but colonization led to subjugation. Constitutional protection provided post-independence, but development challenges persist, leading to revolts. Conclusion: The concept of a nation-state and the condition of tribes within different nations vary widely. India, with its multiethnic composition, faces challenges in ensuring the welfare and development of its tribal population, necessitating ongoing efforts to address historical injustices and current issues.

Answer 212

Pre-Independence Period: British policy involved segregation and laissez-faire. Phase I (1782-1855): Hill Assembly in Rajmahal, regulation to administer tribal tracts. Phase II (1855-1919): Formation of Santhal Paraganas, Scheduled District Act 1874, Govt. of India Act 1919. Phase III (1935-1947): Govt. of India Act 1935, classified areas as excluded, partially excluded, and provincial areas. Post-Independence Period: Creation of scheduled and tribal areas based on Gopinath Bardoloi committee recommendations. Fifth Schedule Areas: Provides protection in contiguous tribal areas. Empowers the Governor to make regulations on land transfer, money lending. Tribal Advisory Council for welfare advice. Assessment of Fifth Schedule Areas: Advantages: Social, cultural, and economic autonomy. Limitations: Political capture, implementation challenges. Conclusion: The evolution of tribal administration in India reflects a shift from British exploitation to post-independence policies aiming at autonomy and protection. Challenges persist, requiring ongoing efforts for tribal development.

Answer 213

Question,Answer

Answer 214

Discuss the Impact of Hindu Society on Tribal Population in India (15 marks),Nearly 95% of tribes in India show the impact of Hinduism. British policies and communication exposed tribes to the outside world. Western India (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra), Southern India (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala), Central India (Madhya Pradesh), Eastern India (West Bengal, Odisha, Bihar). Peasantisation: Adoption of cultivation and Hindu beliefs. Tribe-Caste Continuum: Smooth impact without missionary practices (e.g., Gonds, Bhills). Surjeet Sinha's study on tribal-Rajput continuum. Tribe Castes: Total assimilation into Hindu society, transforming into castes. Example: Griffith's study on Hinduisation of Kol tribe. Kshatriyization: Assimilation into Hindu Kshatriya status (e.g., Tharu studied by Srivastava). Role of Brahmanism: Provided services and introduced Hindu beliefs, practices, festivals, and gods. Propagated the belief that the origin of every tribe is a caste. Negative: Replacement of tribal rituals with complicated Hindu rituals. Introduction of a money economy and priest services. Introduction of child marriages and gender disparity. Decline of youth dormitories leading to tension. Exploitation of pre-marital and extra-marital relationships. Replacement of bride price by dowry, leading to indebtedness. Social disabilities due to giving up beef and drinking. Poverty and exploitation. Positive: Formation of a new sociocultural system amalgamating tribes and Hindus. Examples like Raghuvanshi of Bengal adopting the gotra system and endogamy from tribals and Hindus. The impact of Hindu society on tribal populations in India is complex, resulting in both negative consequences, such as cultural erosion and exploitation, and positive outcomes, like the formation of a unique sociocultural system.

Answer 215

Discuss the Impact of Buddhism on Indian Tribes (10 marks),Tribes in the North East Himalayan region, like Bhutia, Lepcha, Chakmas, and Nagas, are mainly Buddhist. Some tribes in Arunachal Pradesh and Ladakh region have also been influenced. Limited influence on Indian tribes. Tribes in Arunachal Pradesh follow Mahayana or Tibetan Buddhism. Khamti tribe follows Hinayana Buddhism. Tribal communities maintaining continuity with traditional practices. Adoption of Buddhism does not entirely replace tribal beliefs and practices. Presence of gompa (sacred place) and Lamas in tribal areas. While some Indian tribes, especially in the North East, have adopted Buddhism, the impact remains limited, and tribes continue to maintain their traditional beliefs and practices alongside Buddhist influences.

Answer 216

Impact of Christianity on Tribal Societies in India (15 marks),Christianity's impact on Indian tribal societies traced back to British colonial rule and missionary activities. Mainly North-East India (Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram). Kerala, Andaman & Nicobar, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha. Tribes: Garo, Khasi, Naga, Oraon, etc. Causes of Attraction: Revolt against exploitation by Hindu landlords, money lenders, and traders. Christianity as a channel of westernization - dress, food, music, etc. Positive: Spread of formal and modern education. Healthcare and modern medicine. Promotion of monogamy and discouragement of divorce. Increased self-image and identity. Abolition of harmful practices like burying newborns with deceased mothers. Positive changes in gender roles and practices (e.g., Mizo peoples). Abstinence from certain traditional practices (e.g., drinking rice beer among Naga tribes). Better medical cover reducing maternal deaths. Enhanced confidence and self-respect. Negative: Vertical division between Christian and non-Christian tribes (e.g., Khasi of Meghalaya). Migration to urban centers to avoid humiliation. Radical departure from the past causing tension. Denigration of tribal beliefs and practices. Shift from matriarchy to patriarchy. Abandonment of youth dormitories. Impact on tribal societies' consumerism (cosmetics, perfumes, etc.). Case Study: K. N. Sahay's detailed study of tribal Christian converts in Chota-Nagpur. Changes in self-image and identity, belief in practicing the world's best religion, but also societal divisions. Christianity has brought both positive and negative changes to Indian tribal societies, impacting their cultural, social, and economic aspects. The acculturation process needs careful consideration to preserve tribal culture.

Answer 217

Islam and Indian Tribes (10/15 marks),Geographically isolated areas with belief in magic, sorcery, and animism. Biogenic and linguistic variability among Indian tribes. Penetration Difficulties: Islam faced challenges in penetrating tribal societies due to its dogmatic nature and lack of patronage from Muslim rulers. Spread mainly left to Sufi saints and preachers. Tribes Affected: Siddis of Gujarat, Gujjars of North-West Himalayas, sections of Bhils, Dhankhasi, and Kotis of Rajasthan. Gaddi and Bakriwal of Jammu and Kashmir influenced by Sufi saints. Islam's Influence: Limited impact compared to Hinduism or Christianity. Siddis, Gujjars, Bhils under some influence. Gaddi and Bakriwal influenced by Sufi saints. Egalitarian Social Structure: Islam made inroads due to its egalitarian social structure despite its dogmatic nature. Lakshadweep Case: Seven Muslim tribal communities with changes in social structures and rituals. Adoption of Islamic personal law and preference for cross-cousin marriage. Continuity of Little Tradition: Even tribes influenced by Islam maintain their traditional little traditions. Islam's impact on Indian tribes remains limited, with challenges due to its dogmatic nature, making it less penetrative compared to Hinduism or Christianity. Tribal societies tend to maintain continuity