ANTH FULL 2 Flashcards
FULL 2 (422 cards)
1
Q
Various Approaches to Study Civilization,Anthropological Approach,What are the key points in the Anthropological Approach to studying Civilization
cc met cmn mcv
A
,1. Comprehension of Civilization vs. culture. 2. Meaning of Civilization: External outfit, technological trends. 3. Contents of Civilization: Material vs. non-material cultures. 4. McIver’s perspective: Civilization (material) vs. Culture (values, subjective).
2
Q
Socio-linguist’s Approach,Socio-linguist’s Approach,What is the Socio-linguist’s Approach to studying Civilization
A
,An approach that associates progress with the term Civilization, utilizes L.H. Morgan’s evolutionary scheme, and employs measurement scales like Savagery, Barbarism, and Civilization.
3
Q
Historian’s View,Historian’s View,What is the Historian’s View of Civilization
A
,Viewing Civilization as an advanced culture, contrasting with non-centralized tribal societies, and considering factors leading to the emergence of Civilization.
4
Q
Anthropological Approach,Anthropological Approach,What is the Anthropological Approach to studying Civilization
A
,An approach that involves the comprehension of Civilization vs. culture, explores the meaning of Civilization in terms of external outfit and technological trends, and distinguishes the contents of Civilization as material vs. non-material cultures. It also considers McIver’s perspective: Civilization (material) vs. Culture (values, subjective).
5
Q
Conclusion,Comparison of Civilization with Culture,What is the conclusion drawn regarding the comparison of Civilization with Culture
A
,The anthropological approach is considered more holistic in understanding Civilization, and there is an emphasis on comparing Civilization with Culture.
6
Q
Cultural Relativism,Definition,What is Cultural Relativism
A
,An anthropological attitude that views all cultural patterns as equally valid; Emphasizes understanding each culture objectively in terms of its own problems, logic, and rationale.
7
Q
Cultural Relativism,Significance,What is the significance of Cultural Relativism
td kd wm
A
,1. Fosters tolerance among diverse cultures. 2. Expands knowledge by appreciating the diversity of human societies. 3. Contributes to world peace by promoting mutual understanding.
8
Q
Cultural Relativism,Criticism,What is a criticism of Cultural Relativism
A
,Cultural relativism can be criticized for sometimes justifying traditions that may be harmful, especially when influenced by dominant or powerful classes.
9
Q
Ethnocentrism,Definition,What is Ethnocentrism
A
,The belief that one’s own values, traditions, and customs are superior, natural, correct, and preferable compared to those of other cultures.
10
Q
Acculturation,Definition,What is Acculturation
A
,The process where one society’s whole culture is replaced or displaced by another due to intensive contact.
11
Q
Diffusion,Definition,What is Diffusion
A
,The passage of cultural elements from one culture to another, resulting in major changes in the original culture of one or both societies.
12
Q
Cultural Relativism,Definition,What is Cultural Relativism
A
,An anthropological attitude that views all cultural patterns as equally valid; Emphasizes understanding each culture objectively in terms of its own problems, logic, and rationale.
13
Q
Cultural Relativism,Significance,What is the significance of Cultural Relativism
A
,1. Fosters tolerance among diverse cultures. 2. Expands knowledge by appreciating the diversity of human societies. 3. Contributes to world peace by promoting mutual understanding.
14
Q
Cultural Relativism,Criticism,What is a criticism of Cultural Relativism
A
,Cultural relativism can be criticized for sometimes justifying traditions that may be harmful, especially when influenced by dominant or powerful classes.
15
Q
Ethnocentrism,Definition,What is Ethnocentrism
A
,The belief that one’s own values, traditions, and customs are superior, natural, correct, and preferable compared to those of other cultures.
16
Q
Acculturation vs. Diffusion,Acculturation,What is Acculturation
A
,The process where one society’s whole culture is replaced or displaced by another due to intensive contact.
17
Q
Acculturation vs. Diffusion,Diffusion,What is Diffusion
A
,The passage of cultural elements from one culture to another, resulting in major changes in the original culture of one or both societies.
18
Q
Concept of Society,Introduction,What is society
A
,A collective of individuals organized around cultural norms, influencing behavior and establishing standardized social patterns; Facilitates the coordination of human activities and the formation of standardized behaviors as a social imperative.
19
Q
Concept of Society,Definition,How do functional definitions characterize society
A
,Emphasize reciprocal relationships and interactions enabling individuals to fulfill life activities.
20
Q
Concept of Society,Definition,How do structural definitions characterize society
A
,Encompass the total social heritage, including norms, institutions, habits, sentiments, and ideals.
21
Q
Concept of Society,Characteristics,What are the characteristics of society
w ld ic
A
,Web of Social Relationships, Likeness and Difference, Interdependence, Cooperation.
22
Q
Concept of Society,Nature,What are the two main theories regarding the nature of society
A
,Social Contract Theory (Hobbes, Locke) and Organic Theory (Plato, Aristotle, Herbert Spencer).
23
Q
Concept of Society,Nature,What does the Social Contract Theory propose
A
,Views society as an entity deliberately set up by individuals for certain ends; Individuals make a mutual agreement to create society for mutual benefit.
24
Q
Concept of Society,Nature,What does the Organic Theory propose
A
,Sees a resemblance between individual and society, viewing society as an organism with individuals as its limbs; Society is considered a social organism, and individuals are essential for the well-being of the whole.
25
Concept of Society,Anthropological View,What do anthropologists assert about the nature of society
,Man is inherently social by nature; Necessity compels man to be social for fulfilling various needs; Society determines the personality of individuals through the transmission of culture.
26
Concept of Society,Conclusion,What is the conclusion about the necessity of society for human existence
,While there are differences in theories regarding the nature of society, there is a consensus about the necessity of society for the existence of human beings, as humans are inherently social animals.
27
Concept of Social Group,Meaning,What is the meaning of a social group
,A collection of human beings brought into social relationships with one another; A social unit consisting of individuals in definite status and role relationships, possessing a set of values or norms regulating individual behavior concerning the group (Sheriff and Sheriff).
28
Concept of Social Group,Characteristics,What are the characteristics of a social group
| ruw csg
,Reciprocal Relations, Sense of Unity, We-Feeling, Common Interests, Similar Behavior, Group Norms.
29
Concept of Social Group,Characteristics,Is a social group dynamic
,Yes; Subject to change, expansion, and modification over time. The nature of change can be sudden or gradual.
30
Concept of Social Group,Classification,What is Simmer's classification of groups based on
,Based on the number of individuals, starting with a monad (single person), dyad, triad, and so on.
31
Concept of Social Group,Classification,What is Dwight Sanderson's classification based on
,Based on membership, categorized into voluntary groups (joined willingly), involuntary groups (based on kinship), and delegate groups (representatives elected or nominated).
32
Concept of Social Group,Classification,What is Ferdinand Tonnies' classification based on
,Groups classified into Gemeinschaft (Communities) and Gesellschaft (Associations).
33
Concept of Social Group,Classification,According to Cooley, what are primary groups
,Small, direct face-to-face relationships, characterized by mutual influence.
34
Concept of Social Group,Classification,According to Cooley, what are secondary groups
,Larger, interactions are more superficial, calculated in terms of self-interest, and lack face-to-face intimacy.
35
Concept of Social Group,Classification,What insights do these classifications provide
,Insights into the nature, structure, and functions of social groups in different contexts.
36
Social Institutions,Introduction,What are social institutions
,Complex, integrated sets of social norms organized around preserving fundamental societal values.
37
Social Institutions,Definition,According to Ginsberg, how are social institutions defined
,Definite and sanctioned forms or modes of relationships between social beings concerning each other or some external object; Encompass customs, rituals, procedures, and established rules.
38
Social Institutions,Examples,What are some examples of social institutions
,Marriage, family, education, and religion.
39
Social Institutions,Characteristics,What are the characteristics of social institutions
| og rrp csf
,Objectives or Goals, Rules and Regulations, Procedures, Collective Endeavor, Stability, Fulfillment of Needs.
40
Social Institutions,Types,What are primary social institutions
,Family, government/state, economy, education, and religion.
41
Social Institutions,Types,What are secondary social institutions
| d mre pe
,Derived from primary institutions, e.g., marriage, religious institutions, educational institutions, political systems, and economic structures.
42
Social Institutions,Importance,What are the importance of social institutions
| c mi sg
,Cultural Transmission, Morals and Ideals, Social Control, Guidance for the Younger Generation.
43
Social Institutions,Conclusion,What is the conclusion about social institutions
,Though subject to changes in rules and regulations, they endure over time and play crucial roles in cultural transmission, moral guidance, social control, and providing guidance to successive generations.
44
Social Stratification,Introduction,What is social stratification
,Division of society into hierarchically arranged groups or strata, with unequal access to economic resources, power, and prestige; Universal phenomenon with common features worldwide.
45
Social Stratification,Features,What are the features of social stratification
| hiv us nc
,Hierarchy of Status, Institutionalized Inequalities, Variability, Universal Phenomenon, Social, Not Biological, Common Identity.
46
Social Stratification,Bases of Grouping,What are some bases of grouping in social stratification
| cce gef ke
,Caste-based, Class-based, Estate-based, Other bases like gender, ethnicity, family background, kinship bonds, and education.
47
Social Stratification,Types of Societies,What are the types of societies based on stratification
| erc
,Egalitarian Societies, Rank-based Societies, Class Societies.
48
Social Stratification,Importance,What is the importance of social stratification
| mmi cg
,Media for Working Culture, Moral and Ideals Transmission, Control of Human Behavior, Guidance for Problem-Solving.
49
Social Stratification,Conclusion,What is the conclusion about social stratification
,While having advantages like maintaining group solidarity, it also has detrimental effects, including economic inequalities and oppression; A crucial aspect of the social life of individuals.
50
Status,Definition,What does status refer to in anthropology
,A person's social position in a society, independent of higher or lower references.
51
Status,Definition,How did Weber define status
,The honor accorded to a person or group based on family background, education, economic condition, caste, ethnicity, etc.
52
Status,Ascribed Status,What is ascribed status
,Status associated with birth and prevalent in societies like India and China.
53
Status,Ascribed Status,What are the bases of ascribed status
,Sex, age group, ancestry.
54
Status,Ascribed Status,Is there mobility in ascribed status
,Limited mobility; Individuals often remain in the ascribed status throughout their lives.
55
Status,Achieved Status,What is achieved status
,Status accorded based on personal accomplishments.
56
Status,Achieved Status,Where is achieved status found
,In open-class societies where there is freedom to move between different strata.
57
Status,Achieved Status,Does achieved status allow for social mobility
,Yes; It allows for social mobility and interaction between individuals from various backgrounds.
58
Role,Definition,What does role represent in anthropology
,The pattern of behavior associated with a distinctive status.
59
Role,Role in Collective Activity,When do roles manifest in collective activities
,When people engage in collective activities.
60
Role,Role in Collective Activity,Are roles independent
,No; Roles depend on social organization.
61
Role,Reciprocal Nature,Are roles reciprocal
,Yes; Roles involve mutual expectations between individuals.
62
Role,Role Repertoires,What is role repertoires
,The sum total of all roles performed by an individual.
63
Role,Role Repertoires,Can individuals play multiple roles simultaneously
,Yes; Individuals may simultaneously play multiple roles, such as being a friend, enemy, spouse, and parent.
64
Role,Role Partners,Who are role partners
,Individuals enacting the same kind of role; Examples include students, friends, etc.
65
Conclusion,Conclusion,What do status and role reflect in anthropology
,Fundamental concepts reflecting an individual's social position and associated patterns of behavior.
66
Conclusion,Conclusion,What do ascribed and achieved statuses demonstrate
,The dynamics of social mobility.
67
Conclusion,Conclusion,What do roles showcase
,Reciprocal interactions and the complexity of individuals' social engagements.
68
Problem of Defining Marriage,Introduction,Why have anthropologists struggled to provide a universal definition of marriage
,Due to its diverse forms; Marriage is a universal institution with different implications for different societies.
69
Problem of Defining Marriage,Different Definitions,What was Malinowski's focus in defining marriage
,Principle of legitimacy.
70
Problem of Defining Marriage,Different Definitions,How did Malinowski define marriage
,As giving a woman a socially recognized husband and children a recognized father.
71
Problem of Defining Marriage,Different Definitions,What did Malinowski emphasize in his definition of marriage
,Legitimacy, but did not define what marriage was.
72
Problem of Defining Marriage,Different Definitions,How did the Notes and Queries (1951) definition define marriage
,As a union between a man and a woman with recognized legitimate offspring.
73
Problem of Defining Marriage,Different Definitions,What criticism did the Notes and Queries (1951) definition face
,Not covering plural marriages like polyandry or polygyny and non-binary marriages.
74
Problem of Defining Marriage,Different Definitions,What was Prince Peter's attempt in defining marriage
PDRROI
,Studied polyandrous marriage; Defined marriage in terms of roles, rights, and obligations but proved inadequate.
75
Problem of Defining Marriage,Different Definitions,How did Kathleen Gough define marriage
,As a relationship that provides full birth status rights to children.
76
Problem of Defining Marriage,Different Definitions,What were the limitations of Kathleen Gough's definition of marriage
,Not universal coverage.
77
Problem of Defining Marriage,Challenges in Universal Definition,Why is defining marriage universally challenging
,Marriage varies widely, covering homosexual marriages, concubinage, trial sexual relations, and cattle marriages; Tremendous social diversity.
78
Problem of Defining Marriage,Conclusion,What are anthropologists more interested in studying regarding marriage
RSERED
,Rights transferred through marriage; Emphasis on rights related to sexual access, economic responsibility, rights over children, and the establishment of families and domestic groups.
79
Why Marriage as a Universal Social Institution,Introduction,Why is marriage considered a peculiar social institution universal in human societies
,Despite limitations on rights and increased obligations.
80
Why Marriage as a Universal Social Institution,Biological and Socio-Cultural Reasons,What are the reasons for considering marriage both biological and socio-cultural
,Results in enculturation, forming small social groups with social organization.
81
Why Marriage as a Universal Social Institution,Real Needs for Marriage,What is one reason for marriage related to regulating sexual competition
,To check chaos due to sexual competition; Human features like year-round mating, less sexual dimorphism, and physical dominance require regulation.
82
Why Marriage as a Universal Social Institution,Real Needs for Marriage,Why is marriage necessary for the security of the mother-newborn combination
,Evolution led to mentally immature offspring, requiring prolonged protection; Male association needed for support, but males naturally resist permanent bonds; Marriage provides binding norms for the association of males with mothers and children.
83
Why Marriage as a Universal Social Institution,Conclusion,What makes marriage a fundamental institution in human societies despite limitations
,Universal recognition of needs related to regulating sexual competition and ensuring the security of the mother-newborn combination.
84
Soan Culture (Sohan Culture),Discovery,Who discovered the Soan Culture
,De Terra and Patterson.
85
Soan Culture (Sohan Culture),Geographic Location,Where is the Soan Culture located
,Potwar Plateau in Pakistan.
86
Soan Culture (Sohan Culture),Geographic Location,What are the geographical boundaries of the Potwar Plateau
,Himalaya in the north, Salt Ranges in the south, Pirpanjal in the west, and Shivalik in the east.
87
Soan Culture (Sohan Culture),Geographic Location,Which river flows through the Soan Culture region
,Sohan River.
88
Soan Culture (Sohan Culture),Age,How old is the Soan Culture
,Approximately 5 lac to 1.25 lac years old.
89
Soan Culture (Sohan Culture),Age,To which Paleolithic age does the Soan Culture belong
,Lower and Middle Paleolithic.
90
Soan Culture (Sohan Culture),Cultural Phases,What are the cultural phases in the Soan Valley
,Pre-Sohan, Early Sohan, Late Sohan, Evolved Sohan.
91
Soan Culture (Sohan Culture),Tool Technology,What tools are present in the Soan Culture
,Pebble tools, hand axes, chopper-chopping tools.
92
Soan Culture (Sohan Culture),Coexistence of Tool Types,What is the unique feature of tool coexistence in Soan Culture
,Coexistence of chopper-chopping of pebbles and hand axe cleavers.
93
Soan Culture (Sohan Culture),Climatic Regime,How is Soan Culture influenced by climate
,Influenced by glaciation and inter-glaciation in the Himalayan glacial and inter-glacial zone.
94
Soan Culture (Sohan Culture),Distribution Through Time,How did Soan Culture evolve through time
,Evolution from early to late Sohan, and finally to evolved Sohan.
95
Soan Culture (Sohan Culture),Other Features,What are some regional variations in Soan Culture
,Regional variations in tool technology and types.
96
Soan Culture (Sohan Culture),Other Features,What are the influences on Soan Culture from glaciation and inter-glaciation
,Climatic influence from glaciation and inter-glaciation.
97
Soan Culture (Sohan Culture),Other Features,What does the coexistence of various tool types in Soan Culture indicate
,Coexistence of various tool types indicative of cultural evolution.
98
1,"How did Murdoch define family
,Defined by Murdoch as a social group characterized by common residence, reproduction, and cooperation. Includes sexually cohabiting adults, male and female, with one or more children."
99
2,"What factors cause variation in types of families
,Vary across societies due to cultural needs. Based on the number of husband and wife involved."
100
3,"What is a Nuclear Family
,Consists of parents and unmarried children. Examples include complete nuclear family and incomplete nuclear family based on the presence of children."
101
4,"What are Monogamous and Polygamous Families
,Monogamous family results from monogamy, found in modern societies. Polygamous family includes polyandrous and polygynous families, with various reasons like economic pragmatism or status symbols."
102
5,"What is an Extended Family
,An extension of nuclear family, either horizontally or vertically. Examples include horizontally extended family and vertically extended family."
103
6,"What is a Joint Family
,A special type of extended family with joint property, a common kitchen, and a patriarch. Distinguished from extended family by the presence of at least two nuclear families joined vertically."
104
7,"What are the types of Families based on Rules of Residence
,Includes patrilocal, matrilocal, and neolocal families. Influenced by economic factors, mobility, privacy, and emotional bonds."
105
8,"What is the difference between Patriarchal and Matriarchal Families
,Patriarchal family has male authority, while matriarchal family has female authority."
106
9,"What are Ancestry-Based Families
,Patrilineal family traces ancestry through the male line. Matrilineal family traces ancestry through the female line."
107
10,"What is a Consanguineous Family
,Based on blood relations, uniting consanguineous kins living together. Example: Nayar family with sisters, brothers, and their children."
108
11,"What is a Conjugal Family
,Based on marital ties, occasionally joined by relatives of husband or wife."
109
12,"What is the difference between Family of Orientation and Family of Procreation
,Family of orientation is one born into, and family of procreation is founded through marriage."
110
13,"What are the classifications in Evans Pritchard's classification of families
,Natural family includes parents and children. Simple legal family consists of a married couple and their children. Complex legal family is polygynous, linking separate families to a common father."
111
14,"What are Matrifocal and Patrifocal Families
,Matrifocal family includes mother and children without a regular father. Patrifocal family involves father and children without a mother."
112
15,"What is the conclusion regarding family types
,Different family types result from diverse sociocultural factors present in societies."
113
1,"What are the major or essential functions of the family according to Murdoch
i s
c p
e d as
s s ltc
,- Institutionalized Mating: Provides for socially accepted gratification of sexual needs.
- Channelized Reproduction: Ensures the perpetuation of society through institutionalized mating.
- Economic Cooperation: Facilitates division of labor based on age and sex.
- Socialization: Prepares children to participate in various social groups through language, traditions, and culture."
114
2,"What are the minor functions of the family
s c irs
r sw
p ps
u l
p eas
,- Sense of Belongingness: Common residence fosters intimacy, responsibility, and security.\n-
Religious Function: Families often have a shared religious identity, engaging in worship together.\n-
Political Function: Acts as a political group, with single families providing political heads in some contexts.\n-
Unit of Entertainment: Family members engage in leisure activities together.\n-
Psychological Function: Provides emotional support, fostering affectionate relationships and stabilizing individual personalities."
115
3,"What is the conclusion regarding the family's functions
,Family is a fundamental and universal social institution, performing major functions that contribute to the well-being and continuity of society."
116
1,"What is Probationary Marriage
,Primitive version of courtship where the prospective husband stays with the bride's family."
117
2,"Which tribes practice Probationary Marriage
,Kuki tribe in Nagaland and Manipur."
118
3,"What is Marriage by Capture
,Popular type involving arranged or spontaneous capture of the bride."
119
4,"Which tribes practice Marriage by Capture
,Kondha, Juang, Bhuinya, Kharia, Birhor tribes."
120
5,"What does Marriage by Trial involve
,Requires the prospective groom to prove his prowess before claiming the bride."
121
6,"Which tribe practices Marriage by Trial
,Bhils of Madhya Pradesh."
122
7,"What is Marriage by Purchase
,Involves payment, either cash or kind, by the groom to the bride's parents."
123
8,"Which tribes practice Marriage by Purchase
,Kondh, Juang, Ho, Munda tribes."
124
9,"What is Marriage by Service
,Groom serves in the bride's family as compensation for the inability to pay bride price."
125
10,"Which tribes practice Marriage by Service
,Gond, Baiga tribes."
126
11,"What is Marriage by Exchange
,Involves exchanging daughters between two families without paying bride price."
127
12,"Which tribes practice Marriage by Exchange
,Kondh, Saora, Juang, Bhuiyan, Santal tribes."
128
13,"What is Marriage by Elopement
,Unmarried couples, if opposed by parents, flee and may later be accepted back."
129
14,"Which tribes practice Marriage by Elopement
jabka
,Juang, Santal, Bhuinya, Kondha, Saora tribes."
130
15,"What is Marriage by Intrusion
,A girl expresses willingness to marry a specific male and forcibly stays with him despite rejection."
131
16,"Which tribes practice Marriage by Intrusion
,Juang, Kondh, Bhuiyan, Birhor, Ho tribes."
132
17,"What is Marriage by Mutual Consent
,Resembles modern marriages, involves mutual agreement between parties."
133
18,"Which tribes practice Marriage by Mutual Consent
Bhil Tribe
Location: Predominantly found in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra.
Marriage Practice: Marriage by mutual consent.
Description: In the Bhil tribe, couples can choose to marry based on mutual agreement and personal choice.
Process: This practice allows the individuals to express their willingness to marry each other without the need for elaborate ceremonies or dowries.
Cultural Significance: Reflects a more egalitarian and modern approach to marital unions, highlighting the importance of personal choice and consent.
Other Examples:
Gond Tribe
Location: Mainly in central India, including Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh.
Marriage Practice: Dhukha or mutual consent marriage.
Description: The couple can enter into marriage based on their mutual agreement.
Process: Similar to the Bhil tribe, the emphasis is on the consent and choice of the individuals involved, without heavy dependence on formal rituals
134
1,"What is a universal phenomenon in all societies
,Marriage exists in all societies."
135
2,"What are the characteristics associated with marriage
ca spf evm fbsdf cre rp ap sw
:
- Creation of God or Ancestor's Genius
- Objectives: Socially recognized intimacy, Procreation and family perpetuation, Utilization of woman's economic functions
- Variations: Mate choice: Free or constrained, Functional transactions: Bride price, service, dowry, gift exchange, Ceremonials: Ritual observances, elaborate ceremonies, Residence: Patilocal, matrilocal, bilocal, neolocal, avuncolocal, Authority in family: Patriarchy, matriarchy, avunco-potestality, Stability of union: Weak or strong, influencing divorce rates
136
3,"What is hypergamy (Anuloma)
,Marrying into a family of higher status."
137
4,"What are the reasons associated with hypergamy
,Caste hierarchy, improving rank and prestige."
138
5,"What are the consequences of hypergamy
,Affinal relationship consolidation, socioeconomic reflections."
Hypergamy
Social Consequences
Marriage Patterns
Economic Consequences
Wealth Distribution
Psychological Consequences
Self-Perception
Demographic Consequences
Population Imbalance
139
6,"What is hypogamy (Pratiloma)
,Marrying into a family of lower status."
140
7,"What are the associated issues with hypogamy
,High bride price, polyandry or bachelorhood, evolution of marriage by capture."
141
8,"What are the taboos associated with hypogamy
,Polygyny, forced spinsterhood, female infanticide."
142
9,"What is the incest taboo
,Prohibition of sexual relationships among close relatives."
143
10,"What is the Childhood Familiarity theory (Westermarck)
,Disinterest due to over-familiarity. Criticism: Doesn't explain explicit taboos."
144
11,"What is the Psychoanalytic theory (Freud)
,Reaction against unconscious desires. Criticism: Doesn't explain explicit taboo need."
145
12,"What is the Family Disruption theory (Malinowski)
,Curbing sexual competition for family stability."
146
13,"What is the Family Cooperation theory (E.B. Tylor)
,Promoting cooperation among family groups."
147
14,"What is the Inbreeding theory
Inbreeding theory in anthropology examines genetic consequences and cultural norms influencing kinship and marriage practices within human populations.
148
16,"What is Needham's Claim
,Instances of incest in specific societies."
149
17,"What are the counter-arguments against Needham's Claim
,- Incest taboo is a rule in most societies.\n- Exceptional cases don't negate the prevalence of incest taboos.\n- Theories provide socio-functional reasons for incest taboos."
150
18,"What is the conclusion regarding Needham's Claim
,Needham's experiences are exceptions; incest taboos are predominant features in societies."
151
Filiation,
Definition: Allocation of an individual to a descent group. Types: Father’s line, mother’s line, or both. Impact: Determines property inheritance and political office succession. Examples: Patrilineal and matrilineal systems.
152
Complimentary Filiation,
Introduced by: M. Fortes, based on studies on Tallensi of Ghana. Definition: Recognizing kinship lines with relatives outside one's descent group. Examples: Patrilineal societies maintaining links with maternal family, and vice versa. Significance: Provides residual security against filiation breakdown.
153
Differences Between Filiation and Complimentary Filiation,
Filiation: Political and hierarchical; related to property and status. Complimentary Filiation: Emotional and personal; provides security and insurance. Overall Significance: Balances conflicting emotional attachments and inheritance rules.
154
Kinship Behavior,
Definition: Definite and permanent patterns of behavior among kin. Characteristics: Role expectations, mutual coaction, and regularity in behavior. Categories: Avoidance, joking relation, avunculate, couvade, amitate.
155
Avoidance,
Example: Father-in-law and daughter-in-law. Purpose: Prevent breach of incest; precautionary measure. Observations: Sometimes includes limiting familiarity by covering the face.
156
Joking Relation,
Purpose: Increase proximity and release tension from imposed restrictions. Examples: Devar-bhabhi (ego and elder brother’s wife), Jija-Sali (ego and wife’s younger sister).
157
Avunculate,
Special Rights: Permitted and expected culturally for maternal uncle. Cultural Expectations: Create a unique bond and relationship.
158
Couvade,
Behavior: Husband imitates the wife's behavior during childbirth. Example: Toda of South India. Observation: Cultural expression of shared experiences in childbirth.
159
Amitate,
Relationship: Between ego and his father’s sister. Cultural Significance: Defines a specific kinship role and expectations.
160
Alliance Theory (Claude Levi Strauss),
Definition: Kin relation among different groups through marriage. Origin: Result of the exchange of humans among groups. Function: Strengthens socio-economic bonds; brings different groups together. Critical Examination: Emphasizes the importance of marriage exchange; overlooks other forms of alliances.
161
Functions of Alliance,SCPCTMGCE
Strengthens Socio-Economic Bond: Through marriage exchange, groups establish connections. Political and Economic Significance: Facilitates cooperation, trade, and mutual support. Group Unity: Brings different groups together, fostering a sense of community. Cultural Exchange: Exchange of spouses enhances cultural sharing and understanding.
162
Lineage vs. Clan
Lineage: Demonstrates relatedness to a common ancestor; smaller and residential. Clan: Traces common ancestry, often mythological; larger and non-residential. Functions: Marriage regulation, dispute resolution, emotional bonds.
163
Differences Between Lineage and Clan
Size: Lineage is smaller, clan is larger. Residential Aspect: Lineage can be a residential group; clan is not. Dispute Resolution: Lineage resolves disputes quickly; clan disputes may lead to conflict. Emotional Bonds: Stronger in lineage than in clan. Totem Significance: Clan emphasizes totem; lineage does not.
164
Phratry
Definition: Unilineal descent group of two or more clans. Examples: Hopi, Navajo, Muria Gonds, Crow Indians. Types: Matriphratry, Patriphratry. Characteristics: Common religious obligations, political significance.
165
Kinship Terminology
Definition: Set of terms designating an individual’s position within a group. Observations: Always occur in pairs; socially recognized entities. Pairs: Father-son, mother-daughter, etc.
166
L.H. Morgan and Kinship Terminology
Classificatory Type: Lineals merging with collaterals (Malayan, North American). Descriptive Type: Different terms for different kins (North Indian).
167
Criticism of Morgan’s Study
Factors Influencing Terminology: Multiple historical influences, morphological differences in languages. Sociological Principles: Levirate, sororate, and preferential marriages. Conclusion: Kinship terms are a result of linguistic, historical, and sociological factors.
168
A.R. Radcliffe Brown and Kinship Study
EHI OCS
Focus: Studied Australian aborigines' intricate kinship terminology. Importance: Key to understanding social structure in primitive societies. Types: Eskimo, Hawaiian, Iroquois, Omaha, Crow, Sudanese.
169
Conclusion on Kinship Terminology
Consensus: Six types agreed upon by anthropologists. Importance: Understanding kinship terminology aids in unraveling social structures. Criticism: Terminology study considered by some as 'kinship algebra'; British anthropology critical.
170
Double Descent
Definition: System recognizing matrilineal and patrilineal descent for different purposes. Characteristics: Operates simultaneously, prevents cultural element overlap, resolves demographic challenges. Examples: Ashanti, Yako, Venda.
171
Ambilineal Descent
Definition: Affiliating with kin through either male or female line. Characteristics: Affiliation based on ambiguity, various levels like lineage and clan. Development: Occurs due to depopulation, transition from unilineal descent. Example: Transition from patrilineal to ambilineal due to depopulation.
172
Kindred/Bilateral Kinship Group
Definition: Individual's world of kins through both blood and marriage bonds. Characteristics: Ego-centric, overlapping, temporary, no common purpose, not property owning or transferring. Functions: Distributor group in inheritance, regulates marriage, economic collaboration, integrates society, neutralizes tension. Examples: Iban of Borneo, Zulu of South Africa, U.S.A. (bilateral kinship customs).
173
Double Descent Diagram
Patrilineal Descent Matrilineal Descent
| |
------------------- Ego -------------------
| |
Patrilateral Side Matrilateral Side
174
Ambilineal Descent Diagram
Affiliation with Male Line: Descent Through Male Line (Some People)
Affiliation with Female Line: Descent Through Female Line (Some People)
175
Kindred Diagram
Kindred (Ego-Centric, Overlapping, Temporary)
176
Functions of Kindred
drepit
Distributor group in inheritance. Regulates marriage (usually exogamous). Economic collaboration (e.g., hunting). Political cooperation during emergencies. Integration of society and tension neutralization.
177
Conclusion on Kindred
Not a descent group. Utilitarian, operating when needs arise. Network of relationships through blood and marriage bonds.
178
Double Descent
Definition: System recognizing matrilineal and patrilineal descent for different purposes. Characteristics: Operates simultaneously, prevents cultural element overlap, resolves demographic challenges. Examples: Ashanti, Yako, Venda.
179
Ambilineal Descent
Definition: Affiliating with kin through either male or female line. Characteristics: Affiliation based on ambiguity, various levels like lineage and clan. Development: Occurs due to depopulation, transition from unilineal descent. Example: Transition from patrilineal to ambilineal due to depopulation.
180
Kindred/Bilateral Kinship Group
D BM
C EOTNN
F DREIN
E IB ZSU
Definition:
- **Individual's World of Kins**: Refers to the network of relationships an individual has through both blood (consanguinity) and marriage (affinity) bonds.
Characteristics:
1. **Ego-Centric**: The network is centered around an individual, the "ego."
2. **Overlapping**: Kinship networks overlap as individuals have multiple kinship ties.
3. **Temporary**: Kinship ties can change or dissolve over time.
4. **No Common Purpose**: There is no unified purpose or goal among all members.
5. **Not Property Owning or Transferring**: The kinship network does not collectively own or transfer property.
Functions:
1. **Inheritance Distribution**: Acts as a group for distributing inheritance.
2. **Marriage Regulation**: Helps regulate marriage practices and norms.
3. **Economic Collaboration**: Facilitates economic cooperation among kin.
4. **Social Integration**: Integrates individuals into broader society.
5. **Tension Neutralization**: Helps neutralize social tensions within the community.
Examples:
- **Iban of Borneo**
- **Zulu of South Africa**
- **USA** (Bilateral kinship customs)
181
Ambilineal Descent Diagram
Affiliation with Male Line: Descent Through Male Line (Some People)
Affiliation with Female Line: Descent Through Female Line (Some People)
182
Kindred Diagram
Kindred (Ego-Centric, Overlapping, Temporary)
183
Functions of Kindred
DREPIT
Distributor group in inheritance. Regulates marriage (usually exogamous). Economic collaboration (e.g., hunting). Political cooperation during emergencies. Integration of society and tension neutralization.
184
Conclusion on Kindred
NUONBM
Not a descent group. Utilitarian, operating when needs arise. Network of relationships through blood and marriage bonds.
185
Feminism and Its Impact on the Family System in India (15 marks)
IFMIULTRFLWCBEBBFUCHISDI
Introduction: Feminism characterized by increased assertiveness for equal rights.
Factors: Modern Education, Industrialization, Urbanization, Legal Measures.
Types: Radical Feminism (views family as source of exploitation), Liberal Feminism (advocates for women's rights without opposing men or family).
Consequences: Breakdown of Joint Families, Economic Independence, Balanced Conjugal Roles, Balancing Work and Family, Increased Unmarried Women, Changing Living Arrangements, Highlighting Issues (marital rape, oppression, violence), Impact on Childcare.
Conclusion: Feminism brings significant changes in family structures; impact depends on the degree of feminism, underscoring the dynamic interplay between societal shifts and traditional structures.
186
Positive Changes
TFNC EEJM WDFF DD
Transformation in Family Structure: Shift to smaller, locally functioning joint families.
Functional Jointness: Effective joint families with married sons living neolocally.
Neolocal Residence: Increase in fission families.
Cultural Variation: Traditional communities vs. those exposed to the outside world.
Equality of Individuals: Departure from strict patriarchal structures.
Empowerment of Women: Increased involvement in decision-making.
Joint Mate Selection: Growing trend of joint mate selection.
Merit-Based Opportunities: Distribution based on individual qualities.
Weakening of Family Norms: Decline in rigid adherence.
Decrease in Religious Control: Reduction in religious influence.
Filiocentrism: Influence of children's wishes on family structure.
Female-Headed Households: Rise in the proportion of female-headed households.
Decrease in Average Age of Household Head: Reduction in average age.
Decrease in Child Marriages: Decline in prevalence.
187
Negative Changes
IG VDS
Increased Incidence of Separation and Divorce: Rise in separations and divorces.
Greater Tension within Families: Growing tensions, shrinking kinship ties.
Vulnerability and Instability: Modern families more vulnerable and less stable.
Decreased Family Control: Reduced control leading to fluidity but increased distrust.
Shift in Family Functions: Other institutions taking over certain functions.
188
Global Context FAMILIES
ISC IC FR
Increase in Nuclear Families: Rise in nuclear families globally.
Structural Isolation: Nuclear families in the USA experience structural isolation.
Conflict in Modern Societies: Growing conflict and divorces in industrialized and urban societies.
Impact on Children: Absence leading to reduced interaction, maladjustment, and delinquency.
Changing Division of Labor: More working women contributing to changes.
Functions Outsourced: Some functions taken up by secondary groups.
Reduced Interaction: Decline in meaningful interaction among family members.
189
Conclusion
Rapid and multifaceted changes in the traditional Indian family. Positive transformations alongside challenges and negative consequences. Influenced by modern factors, individualism, changing family dynamics, and external influences.
190
Factors and Forces Responsible for Changes in Family (Introduction)
Various family types: joint, extended, nuclear, patriarchal, matriarchal.
Dynamic nature of culture leads to changes in family structures.
Influencing factors: education, industrialization, urbanization, feminism, cultural shifts.
191
Earlier Form of Family (Traditional Joint Family)
CPFF APJ AEE
Common Residence and Ownership.
Patriarchal Authority: Decision-making by the patriarch.
Familistic Organization: Subordination of individual interests.
Family Tension: Common occurrences within joint families.
Age and Relation-Based Status.
Preference for Filial and Fraternal Relationships
. Joint Responsibility, Ownership, and Ritual Practices.
Authority Based on Seniority.
Equal Attention and
Elders in Mate Selection.
192
Circumstances of Joint/Extended Families
Prevalent in agrarian societies practicing intensive agriculture. Factors contributing to large family sizes.
193
Changes in Family Organization
Modern Education: Changes in attitudes, values, and ideologies.
Industrialization/Industrial Revolution: Impact on family dynamics.
Urbanization: Replacement of informal family controls.
Feminism: Women's fight for economic independence.
Cultural Factors: Influence of democratic institutions,modern values, and media.
194
Conclusion
Changes in family structures influenced by complex factors. Transition from traditional joint families to modern nuclear families. Evolving cultural, economic, and social dynamics shape the family landscape.
195
Chromosome
Condensed Chromatin Composition: DNA + Histone + Non-histone + RNA
196
Chronology in Prehistory
Geological Chronology: Eras and Epochs
197
Relative Dating Methods in Anthropology
SLSSCCFFFAPSTSLRBFTV
Stratigraphy: Law of Superposition
Here are some relative dating methods used in anthropology, each with a brief explanation:
1. **Stratigraphy**: Analyzing layers of soil or rock.
2. **Seriation**: Ordering artifacts by their style or frequency.
3. **Cross-dating**: Comparing dated artifacts from different sites.
4. **Fluorine dating**: Measuring fluorine absorption in bones.
5. **Faunal succession**: Using animal remains to date strata.
6. **Pollen analysis (Palynology)**: Studying pollen grains in soil layers.
7. **Typology**: Classifying artifacts based on similarities.
8. **Lithostratigraphy**: Examining rock layer sequences.
9. **Biostratigraphy**: Dating based on fossil distribution in layers.
10. **Tephrochronology**: Dating volcanic ash layers.
198
Absolute Dating Methods
Dendrochronology (Tree Ring Dating): Counting Rings, Applicable to Wooden Objects
199
Title
Content
200
Lower Paleolithic Culture in India - Geographical Period
Early Stone Age, Upper Pleistocene epoch (2.5 lac years B.C to 1 lac yr B.C)
201
Lower Paleolithic Culture in India - Climatic Features
Mindel glacial, 2nd interglacial, Riss glacial, Kamsian pluvial, 3rd interpluvial
202
Lower Paleolithic Culture in India - Tool Technology
DSCL AC
Direct Percussion, Simple Controlled Technique, Clactonian Technique, Levalloise Technique, Anvil on Anvil Technique, Cylinder Hammer Technique
203
Lower Paleolithic Culture in India - Tool Types
CAAHAACUV
Chopper (Acheulian, Abbevelian), Hand Axe (Acheulian, Abbevelian), Cleavers (U Shape, V Shape)
204
Lower Paleolithic Culture in India - Tool Material
Quartz
205
Lower Paleolithic Culture in India - Regional Variations
Evidences from all over India, Exceptions: Northern alluvial corridor and Kerala
Lower Paleolithic culture in India exhibits regional variations, including distinct lithic industries like the Soanian in the northwest and Acheulian hand-axe traditions in central and southern regions.
206
Lower Paleolithic Culture in India - Sites
SSNCD
NH
S
KK
NKM
Soan Valley (Pakistan), Sabarmati Valley, Nagri, Chittorhgarh, Didwana (West India),
Narsingpur and Hoshangabad (Narmada Valley, M.P.),
Singrawli Basin (U.P.),
Kubara and Kamarapada (Orissa),
Nagarjunkonda and Kareumpudi (Andhra Pradesh), Madrasian Culture (South India)
207
Lower Paleolithic Culture in India - Predominant Tools
Chopper, Hand Axes, Flakes
208
Lower Paleolithic Culture in India - Geological Characteristics
Soan Valley - Glaciations and Interglacial Periods, Narmada Valley - Pluvial and Interpluvial
209
Lower Paleolithic Culture in India - Madrasian Industry
Heavy tropical rainfall, Heavy hand axes and cleavers
210
Lower Paleolithic Culture in India - Living Preferences
Near pebble deposits and forest peripheries, Avoidance of high altitude and dense forest
211
Lower Paleolithic Culture in India - Sociocultural Features
HNI
Hunter-gatherers, Nudity, Intra-group cooperation for hunting
212
Title
Content
213
Advancements and Revolutionary Features of Neolithic Culture - Neolithic Period
First revolution of mankind (V.G. Childe)
214
Advancements and Revolutionary Features of Neolithic Culture - Role of Technology
Similar to Industrial and Information Technology Revolutions
215
Advancements and Revolutionary Features of Neolithic Culture - Key Changes
Shift to a self-sufficient food-producing economy
216
Advancements and Revolutionary Features of Neolithic Culture - Advancements
Practice of agriculture, Domestication of animals, Grinding and polishing of stone tools, Manufacture of pottery
217
Advancements and Revolutionary Features of Neolithic Culture - Impact of Domestication
Emergence of village communities, Beginning of agricultural technology, Greater control over natural resources
218
Advancements and Revolutionary Features of Neolithic Culture - Significance
Considered the first revolution of mankind due to significant technological changes
219
Comparative Account of Mesolithic and Neolithic Culture in India - Geological Time Period & Climatic Regime
Mesolithic Culture (M.C.): 9000 BC onwards, warm climate, Neolithic Culture (N.C.): 7000 BC onwards, post-glacial period, warm climate
220
Comparative Account of Mesolithic and Neolithic Culture in India - Tool Technology
M.C.: Blade technology, hafted tools, N.C.: Ground and polished tools (pecking, grinding, polishing)
221
Comparative Account of Mesolithic and Neolithic Culture in India - Tool Types
M.C.: Microliths (lunate, triangles, trapezes), N.C.: Polished axe, adze, chisel, saddle quern
222
Comparative Account of Mesolithic and Neolithic Culture in India - Tool Material
M.C.: Quartz, agate, chert, carnelian, bone, antler, N.C.: Similar to Mesolithic
223
Comparative Account of Mesolithic and Neolithic Culture in India - Regional Variation
M.C.: Langhnaj (Gujarat), Sarai Nahar Rai (U.P.), Birbhanpur (West Bengal), N.C.: Burzaham (J & K), Mehrgarh (Baluchistan), Chirand (Bihar), Deojali Hading (Assam)
224
Comparative Account of Mesolithic and Neolithic Culture in India - Socio-cultural Features
HGLPBP VS RPDSSWS
M.C.: Hunting, gathering, later domestication, pot shreds, burials in crouching position, paintings, N.C.: Rural revolution, pottery, domestication on a full-fledged basis, surplus food, trade, specialization, weaving, social inequality
225
Regional Variation of Chalcolithic Culture in India - Ochre Coloured Pottery Culture
Gangatic doab, Discovered by Lal at Hastinapur, Copper hoards (UP, Bihar, MP), Tool types: Rings, flat and shouldered Celts, anthropomorphs, swords, double-edged axes, harpoons, socketed axes
226
Regional Variation of Chalcolithic Culture in India - Banas Culture
Near Banas River in Rajasthan, Black and Red ware, painted in white on the exterior, geometric motifs, Excavations: Agar, Gilgud, Katha
227
Regional Variation of Chalcolithic Culture in India - Kayatha (Malwa) of MP KTSVDCSCR
On the bank of Kalisindh, Thick, sturdy Brown slipped ware painted in violet or deep red, Copper and stone tools, circular & rectangular huts
228
Regional Variation of Chalcolithic Culture in India - Navadatoli (Maharashtra)
Rich in paintings (black & red ware), Charred grains, evidence of eating beef & pork
229
Regional Variation of Chalcolithic Culture in India - Jorwe Culture
MKBWLRAJROMGBFSSC
Predominates in MH except Konkan, Cultivation of barley, wheat, lentil, rice, artificial irrigation, Jorwe ware - Red, orange matt surface painted in geometric designs, burial practices, female figurines, Settlement patterns: Social hierarchy with elite occupying the center
230
Title
Content
231
Langhnaj - Geographic Location
Mehsana district, Gujarat, along the western bank of river Sabarmati
232
Langhnaj - Period and Dating
Mesolithic, around 2040 ± 110 BC. Excavated by H.D. Sankalia, pioneer in Indian Mesolithic research
233
Langhnaj - Climatic Conditions
End of Pleistocene epoch, rise in temperature, ice melting, forest development
234
Langhnaj - Findings
MLSCTASGDCBRRPISSHSC
Microliths (lunates, semi-triangles, crescents, trapezes), Animal bones (sheep, goat, dog, fish, cow, buffalo, rhino), Rhino shoulder blade used as anvil, Pottery shards, iron arrowhead, stone bead, stone quern fragments, Human skeletons buried in crouching position, some with cut marks, Contemporary with Harappan civilization, near a Harappan settlement
235
Langhnaj - Tool Types and Technology
Microliths (lunates, triangles) using blade technology, Tool material: chert, agate, carnelian, occasionally quartz
236
Langhnaj - Socio-Cultural Features
Wild seed collection, domestication of animals, partial sedentism, Setting the stage for entering a settled and productive economy
237
Contribution of Mesolithic Culture - Features Contributing to Neolithic Emergence
ETMSPUCUSPCPHW
Early domestication of animals and plants,
Transition to agriculture with surplus food,
Mesolithic adaptations (sedentism, population size, use of plant foods),
Climatic change from Ice age to dry period
, uncovering vast tracts of land,
Substantial settlement structures evolved from Mesolithic to Neolithic,
Perfection of tool symmetry and craftsmanship in Mesolithic,
Pottery making initiation in later Mesolithic,
hallmark of Neolithic revolution,
Wild seed collection practices as a precursor for plant domestication
238
Broad Outline of Neolithic Culture - Introduction
Neolithic period in the Indian subcontinent, starting around 7000 years B.C., Ground celts, pot sherds, permanent dwellings indicate Neolithic culture, Homo sapiens sapiens associated with Neolithic, considered the first revolution by V.G. Childe
239
Broad Outline of Neolithic Culture - Climate Regime
Post glacial period, warm and dry climate
240
Broad Outline of Neolithic Culture - Tool Technology
Ground and polished tools using pecking, grinding, and polishing
241
Broad Outline of Neolithic Culture - Tool Types and Material
CAS MSO
Polished chisel, axe, saddle quern, muller, stone and organic materials
242
Broad Outline of Neolithic Culture - Regional Variations (Examples)
BJMBCB
Burzaham (J & K), Mehrgarh (Baluchistan), Chirand (Bihar)
243
Broad Outline of Neolithic Culture - Socio-Cultural Features
Dependence on stone tools, emergence of ground and polished tools, Clearing forests, cultivation, domestication of animals, Increase in population size, settlement patterns (permanent/semi-permanent), Social inequalities, religious practices, conflicts, political organization
244
Title
Content
245
Discovery SOAN
Discovered by De Terra and Patterson.
246
Geographic Location SOAN
Himalaya (North)
|
+--------------------Potwar Plateau--------------------+
| - Climate of glaciation and inter-glaciation |
| - Sohan River flows through the plateau |
| Boundaries: |
| - Himalaya (North) |
| - Salt Ranges (South) |
| - Pirpanjal (West) |
| - Extension of Shivalik (East) |
+------------------------------------------------------+
|
Salt Ranges (South)
Pirpanjal (West) Extension of Shivalik (East)
247
Age SOAN
Approximately 5 lac to 1.25 lac years old. Belongs to the Lower and Middle Paleolithic age.
248
Cultural Phases sohan valley
Soan Valley is divided into different cultural phases: Pre-Sohan (Split pebbles and flakes with a small bulb of percussion), Early Sohan (Hand axe & pebble tools, chopper chopping), Late Sohan (Chopper chopping complex, increase in flakes, lighter and neater tools), Evolved Sohan (Mostly flake tools, blade tools, coexistence with earlier tools).
249
Tool Technology soan
Evolution from chopper-chopping tools to blade technology. Presence of pebble tools, hand axes, and chopper-chopping tools.
250
Coexistence of Tool Types soan
Unique feature - Coexistence of chopper-chopping of pebbles and hand axe cleavers. Indicates the coexistence of two different human populations with different tool typology.
251
Climatic Regime SOAN
Influenced by glaciation and inter-glaciation. Himalayan glacial and inter-glacial zone.
252
Distribution Through Time
Evolution from early to late Sohan, and finally to evolved Sohan. Early and late Sohan belong to the Lower Paleolithic, while evolved Sohan belongs to the Middle Paleolithic.
253
Other Features soan
Regional variations in tool technology and types. Climatic influence from glaciation and inter-glaciation. Coexistence of various tool types indicative of cultural evolution.
254
What is a universal phenomenon in all societies?
Marriage exists in all societies.
255
What are the characteristics associated with marriage?
Creation of God or Ancestor's Genius
**Objectives:** Socially recognized intimacy, procreation and family perpetuation, utilization of woman's economic functions
**Variations:**
- **Mate Choice:** Free or constrained
- **Functional Transactions:** Bride price, service, dowry, gift exchange
- **Ceremonials:** Ritual observances, elaborate ceremonies
- **Residence:** Patrilocal, matrilocal, bilocal, neolocal, avuncolocal
- **Authority in Family:** Patriarchy, matriarchy, avuncupotestality
- **Stability of Union:** Weak or strong, influencing divorce rates
256
What is hypergamy (Anuloma)?
Marrying into a family of higher status.
257
What are the reasons associated with hypergamy?
Caste hierarchy, improving rank and prestige.
258
What are the consequences of hypergamy?
Affinal relationship consolidation, socioeconomic reflections.
259
What is hypogamy (Pratiloma)?
Marrying into a family of lower status.
260
What are the associated issues with hypogamy?
HPBE
High bride price, polyandry or bachelorhood, evolution of marriage by capture.
261
What are the taboos associated with hypogamy?
Polygyny, forced spinsterhood, female infanticide.
262
What is the incest taboo?
Prohibition of sexual relationships among close relatives.
263
What is the Childhood Familiarity theory (Westermarck)?
Disinterest due to over-familiarity. Criticism: Doesn't explain explicit taboos.
264
What is the Psychoanalytic theory (Freud)?
Reaction against unconscious desires. Criticism: Doesn't explain explicit taboo need.
265
What is the Family Disruption theory (Malinowski)?
Curbing sexual competition for family stability.
266
What is the Family Cooperation theory (E.B. Tylor)?
Promoting cooperation among family groups.
267
What is the Inbreeding theory?
Focuses on the potentially damaging consequences of inbreeding. Criticism: Doesn't consider societal knowledge.
268
Name some exception cases to the incest taboo.
hepkl
Hawaiian Incuan, Egyptian Royal Family, Peru, Kachin Tribesmen, Lakher of Myanmar.
269
What is Needham's Claim?
Instances of incest in specific societies.
270
What are the counter-arguments against Needham's Claim?
- Incest taboo is a rule in most societies.\n- Exceptional cases don't negate the prevalence of incest taboos.\n- Theories provide socio-functional reasons for incest taboos.
271
What is the conclusion regarding Needham's Claim?
Needham's experiences are exceptions; incest taboos are predominant features in societies.
272
What is a universal phenomenon in all societies?
Marriage exists in all societies.
273
What are the characteristics associated with marriage?
- Creation of God or Ancestor's Genius.\n- Objectives:\n - Socially recognized intimacy.\n - Procreation and family perpetuation.\n - Utilization of woman's economic functions.\n- Variations:\n - Mate choice: Free or constrained.\n - Functional transactions: Bride price, service, dowry, gift exchange.\n - Ceremonials: Ritual observances, elaborate ceremonies.\n - Residence: Patilocal, matrilocal, bilocal, neolocal, avuncolocal.\n - Authority in family: Patriarchy, matriarchy, avunco-potestality.\n - Stability of union: Weak or strong, influencing divorce rates.
274
What is hypergamy (Anuloma)?
Marrying into a family of higher status.
275
What are the reasons associated with hypergamy?
Caste hierarchy, improving rank and prestige.
276
What are the consequences of hypergamy?
Affinal relationship consolidation, socioeconomic reflections.
277
What is hypogamy (Pratiloma)?
Marrying into a family of lower status.
278
What are the associated issues with hypogamy?
High bride price, polyandry or bachelorhood, evolution of marriage by capture.
279
What are the taboos associated with hypogamy?
Polygyny, forced spinsterhood, female infanticide.
280
What is the incest taboo?
Prohibition of sexual relationships among close relatives.
281
What is the Childhood Familiarity theory (Westermarck)?
Disinterest due to over-familiarity. Criticism: Doesn't explain explicit taboos.
282
What is the Psychoanalytic theory (Freud)?
Reaction against unconscious desires. Criticism: Doesn't explain explicit taboo need.
283
What is the Family Disruption theory (Malinowski)?
Curbing sexual competition for family stability.
284
What is the Family Cooperation theory (E.B. Tylor)?
Promoting cooperation among family groups.
285
What is the Inbreeding theory?
Focuses on the potentially damaging consequences of inbreeding. Criticism: Doesn't consider societal knowledge.
286
Name some exception cases to the incest taboo.
hepkl
Hawaiian Incuan, Egyptian Royal Family, Peru, Kachin Tribesmen, Lakher of Myanmar.
287
What is Needham's Claim?
Instances of incest in specific societies.
288
What are the counter-arguments against Needham's Claim?
- Incest taboo is a rule in most societies.\n- Exceptional cases don't negate the prevalence of incest taboos.\n- Theories provide socio-functional reasons for incest taboos.
289
What is the conclusion regarding Needham's Claim?
Needham's experiences are exceptions; incest taboos are predominant features in societies.
290
Introduction folk urban continuum
Brief explanation of the Folk-Urban Continuum as a part of the civilization school in anthropology. Definition of culture and tradition within the context of the civilization school.
291
Civilization School
Overview of culture having two aspects: present reality and past, continuing tradition. Emergence of the civilization school in anthropology. Distinction between simple societies studied by anthropology and complex civilizations. Mention of Robert Redfield's contribution to the study of civilization.
292
Folk-Urban Continuum Concept
Explanation of the two types of civilization according to Robert Redfield and Singer: Primary and Secondary civilization. Reference to Robert Redfield's study of civilization through the folk-urban continuum in his work 'Folk Culture of Yucatan.'
293
Features of Folk, Urban, and Peasant Societies
Characteristics of Folk Society: physically isolated, small size, strong personal relations, emphasis on traditions, division of labor. Features of Urban Society: developed technology, market economy, weak kinship ties, political specialization. Characteristics of Peasant Society: reverence to land, industrious nature, attitude towards agriculture and business.
294
Communities & Interaction folk urban continuum
mdct vi
Mention of specific communities like Marida, Dizta, Chankom, and Taski. Visualization of a continuum between the two poles: Folk Society and Urban Society. Identification of similarities between city & urban and peasant & folk societies.
295
Conclusion of Redfield's Study
Explanation that different societies may share features of the extreme poles, leading to a continuum. Difficulty in demarcating a clear-cut line between folk and urban societies. Application of the continuum concept to the study of simple and complex societies.
296
Criticism by Oscar Lewis folk urban continuum
Critique points raised by Oscar Lewis, including the idealistic nature of Redfield's concept, measurement challenges, and neglect of psychological data. Mention of other factors affecting cultural changes.
297
Introduction tribe caste contiuum
Connection between the concept of Tribe Caste Continuum and the Folk-Urban Continuum. Brief explanation of the Tribe Caste Continuum as rooted in the interaction between tribes and the Hindu Caste System.
298
Concept of Tribe Caste Continuum
Definition of Tribe Caste Continuum as a view that tribes and castes form two extreme points of a continuum. Assertion that communities can be arranged in a graded series between tribes and castes.
299
Examples tribe caste continuum
Illustrations of tribes exhibiting caste-like features and castes adopting tribal features. Examples include the Juansari tribe of Cis-Himalayas and Hill Reddies of Andhra.
300
Causes tribe caste continuum
Ecological and demographic factors leading to migration and adoption of caste features by tribes. Economic factors as a pull factor attracting tribes towards the caste system.
301
Changes in Tribal Organization
Adoption of hierarchical caste systems by tribes. Acceptance and monopolization of certain occupations. Hinduisation or Sanskritisation due to contact with caste cultures.
302
Introduction sacred comp
Definition of religious centers and the concept of sacred complex. Development of the sacred complex concept by Lalita Prasad Vidyarthi under the influence of Robert Redfield's civilization school in anthropology.
303
Historical Background: Redfield’s Hypothesis
CCLG
Overview of Robert Redfield's hypothesis stating that centers of reverence are centers of cultural diffusion. Mention of L. P. Vidyarthi's study of the sacred complex in Gaya under the influence of this hypothesis.
304
Concept of Sacred Complex
Explanation of the sacred complex as centers of civilization where pilgrims from diverse regions and cultures interact. Components of the sacred complex: sacred specialists, sacred geography, and sacred performances.
305
Sacred Geography
Focus on the concept of sacred geography within the sacred complex. Reference to Vidyarthi's analysis of Gaya as a sacred complex, divided into sacred zones, segments, clusters, and centers. Importance of sacred geography in reflecting continuity between great and little traditions.
306
Sacred Performances & Specialists
Explanation of sacred performances such as Pind-dan, Gaya-shradh, Puja, Homa, Katha, Kirtana, supervised by sacred specialists (Gayawal Brahmins). Diffusion of cultural elements between great tradition and little tradition through sacred performances.
307
Integration of Diverse Cultural Traditions
RICCGTV
Emphasis on the role of religious centers in integrating diverse cultures into a common bond of civilization. Cultural elements from great tradition entering little tradition and vice versa through the sacred complex.
308
Other Studies on Sacred Complex
Mention of other scholars' contributions to the study of sacred complexes, including Saraswati, Jha, and Mahapatra. Examples of studies like 'The Holy Circuit Nimsal' and 'Lingraj Temple, its Structure and Change.'
309
Functions of Sacred Complex
Sacred complexes as agents of cultural diffusion and integration. Role in maintaining cultural continuity despite the absence of advanced means of communication.
310
Conclusion
Recapitulation of the significance of studying religious centers in understanding the continuity and integration of Indian civilization.
311
Introduction sacred complex
Definition of religious centers and the concept of sacred complex. Development of the sacred complex concept by Lalita Prasad Vidyarthi under the influence of Robert Redfield's civilization school in anthropology.
312
Historical Background
Overview of Robert Redfield's hypothesis stating that centers of reverence are centers of cultural diffusion. Mention of L. P. Vidyarthi's study of the sacred complex in Gaya under the influence of this hypothesis.
313
Concept of Sacred Complex
Explanation of the sacred complex as centers of civilization where pilgrims from diverse regions and cultures interact. Components of the sacred complex: sacred specialists, sacred geography, and sacred performances.
314
Sacred Geography
Focus on the concept of sacred geography within the sacred complex. Reference to Vidyarthi's analysis of Gaya as a sacred complex, divided into sacred zones, segments, clusters, and centers. Importance of sacred geography in reflecting continuity between great and little traditions.
315
Sacred Performances & Specialists
PGPHKKSG
Explanation of sacred performances such as Pind-dan, Gaya-shradh, Puja, Homa, Katha, Kirtana, supervised by sacred specialists (Gayawal Brahmins). Diffusion of cultural elements between great tradition and little tradition through sacred performances.
316
Integration of Diverse Cultural Traditions
Emphasis on the role of religious centers in integrating diverse cultures into a common bond of civilization. Cultural elements from great tradition entering little tradition and vice versa through the sacred complex.
317
Other Studies on Sacred Complex
Mention of other scholars' contributions to the study of sacred complexes, including Saraswati, Jha, and Mahapatra. Examples of studies like 'The Holy Circuit Nimsal' and 'Lingraj Temple, its Structure and Change.'
318
Functions of Sacred Complex
Sacred complexes as agents of cultural diffusion and integration. Role in maintaining cultural continuity despite the absence of advanced means of communication.
319
Conclusion sacred complex
Recapitulation of the significance of studying religious centers in understanding the continuity and integration of Indian civilization.
320
Criticism of Dominant Caste Concept - Introduction
"Explanation of the Dominant Caste concept by M. N. Srinivas. Overview of the criticism by scholars S. C. Dubey and Peter Gardner."
321
Criticism of Dominant Caste Concept - Criticisms
"Intra-Caste Unity: Intra-caste unity and articulation of power are essential for the emergence of a dominant caste. Exploitation within Caste: Exploitation of weaker elements within the caste contradicts the idea of a dominant caste. Dominant Individuals and Factions: Community power structure is better understood in terms of dominant individuals or factions
322
Criticism of Dominant Caste Concept - Sriniwas on Dubey’s Criticism
"Response: Dubey accepts the existence of dominant individuals and factions but rejects the concept of a dominant caste. Clarification: Dominant individuals and factions derive their dominance from being part of a dominant caste
323
Criticism of Dominant Caste Concept - Conclusion
"Recognition that Sriniwas never claimed the dominant caste concept provides a total explanation for power in rural India. Acknowledgment that political processes and economic development carry the influence of respective dominant castes. The concept is theoretically and empirically limited but remains relevant in understanding regional power dynamics."
324
Concept of Caste Mobility in India - Introduction
"Brief overview of caste mobility involving upward and downward movements. Mention of factors contributing to caste mobility
325
Concept of Caste Mobility in India - Caste System in India
"Introduction to the Jati Model of the caste system
326
Concept of Caste Mobility in India - Meaning of Caste Mobility
"Definition: Movement of caste from one position to another
327
Concept of Caste Mobility in India - Upward Mobility
"Mobility through Warfare
328
Concept of Caste Mobility in India - Downward Mobilization
(a) Desanskritisation : Many castes from higher position change their position
~ to lower one within the caste system for eg. Jat belongs to Kshatriya Varna
however in order to reap the benefit of reservation policy, they have gone
down to the status of OBC.
Recent Maratha agitation in Maharashtra and Patel agitation in Gujrat.
(b) Tribalisation/ Depeasantisation : It means when a caste through the
process of depeasantisation or desanskritisation transforms themselves into a
tribe for eg. many castes in Bastar district of Chhattisgarh have become tribes
by staying with tribal people and following their life style. Recently Gujjar
community which belongs to OBC category has been trying to acquire tribal
status.
329
Concept of Caste Mobility in India - Conclusion
"Summary: Indian Hindu society is dynamic
330
Theories of Origin of Caste System in India - Introduction
"Definition of the caste system as a social stratification of hierarchically arranged castes. Reference to the Varna model."
331
Theories of Origin of Caste System in India - Mythological or Divine Theory
"Explanation of the origin based on the Parusha-Sukta in the Rigveda. Symbolic importance of Brahmins
332
Theories of Origin of Caste System in India - Racial Theory
Throughout the world, there are three major races including Caucasoid, Magnoloid
and Negroid. Fossil evidences of these races are not present because soil of Indian
subcontinent is highly acidic. Therefore racial theory does not go so far.
> However this theory is associated with Varna means skin color. Skin color is one
of the important criteria for racial classification in the world. Aryans have fair
complexion whereas Indian aborigines were of darker complexion. Moreover
Aryans conquered Indian aborigines as a result they got higher social status and
formed higher Varna such as Brahmins, Kshatriya and Vaishya. Whereas aborigines
were given lower status i.e. Shudra
333
Theories of Origin of Caste System in India - Guna or Sociological Theory (Achievement Theory)
"Description of the theory based on inherent qualities and charismatic endowment. Introduction of three Gunas: Satvik
334
Theories of Origin of Caste System in India - Analysis of Theories
"Highlighting historical evidence supporting inter-Varna mobility. Reference to examples such as Raja Janak
335
Discuss the Concept of Dominant Caste in India - Introduction
"Introduction of the concept of the dominant caste introduced by M. N. Srinivas during his study of Rampura village."
336
Discuss the Concept of Dominant Caste in India - Features of Dominant Caste
"Control of Traditional Capital
337
Discuss the Concept of Dominant Caste in India - Additional Feature
"Introduction of political clout
338
Discuss the Concept of Dominant Caste in India - Types of Dominant Caste
(1) On the basis of Nature
> Cumulative
>» Dispersed
When a caste dominates over others in all aspects such as economic, political, ritual
etc. it is cumulative eg. Brahmin in Shirpuram village of Tamil Nadu.
The Unique Academy
In North India, dominance is always dispersed. Jats and Gujjars are decisively
dominant but they do not occupy highest ritual dominance.
(2). On the Basis of Extent
» Village Level Dominance
» Regional Dominance
339
Discuss the Concept of Dominant Caste in India - Factors Responsible for Emergence of New Dominant Caste
(1) Land Reforms
(2) Sanskritisation
(3) Green Revolution
(4) Westernization
(5) Panchayat Raj Institution
(6) Universal Adult Franchise
(7) Reservation
340
Discuss the Concept of Dominant Caste in India - Process of Emergence of Dominant Caste
The concept of dominant caste was given by M. N. Sriniwas during his study of
Rampura village through his book ‘Dominant caste in Rampura’ published in 1959 in
journal American anthropologist. He had observed that ritual status does not always have
superiority in rural set up. There are several other ways of exploring domination.
¢ Features of Dominant Caste : According to M. N. Sriniwas for a caste to be dominant
caste it must have following features :
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
It shall control traditional capital or means of production i.e. land, cattle etc.
Numerical strength : strength in the form of ‘population of their community. It shall
enjoy a great deal of numerical power, locally and regionally. ™
Dominant caste usually enjoys high ritual or caste status in local caste hierarchy.
It is first one to seek modern or western education.
In 1984, M. N. Sriniwas added two more features.
Dominant caste always have tradition in agriculture
They always have tradition in violence
e Additional Feature
(1) Political clout (2) Jobs in administration (3) Western education
> Examples
(1) Yadav & Kurmi in U.P.
(2) Maratha in Maharashtra
(3) Kamma and Reddy in Andhra etc.
© Types
(1) On the basis of Nature
> Cumulative
>» Dispersed
When a caste dominates over others in all aspects such as economic, political, ritual
etc. it is cumulative eg. Brahmin in Shirpuram village of Tamil Nadu.
The Unique Academy
In North India, dominance is always dispersed. Jats and Gujjars are decisively
dominant but they do not occupy highest ritual dominance.
(2). On the Basis of Extent
» Village Level Dominance
» Regional Dominance
Factors Responsible for Emergence of New Dominant Caste
(1) Land Reforms
(2) Sanskritisation
(3) Green Revolution
(4) Westernization
(5) Panchayat Raj Institution
(6) Universal Adult Franchise
(7) Reservation
Process of Emergence of Dominant Caste
Independence of India
Demand for Equality
Land reforms and abolition of Jamindari
Main beneficiary was peasant (Farmer) Caste/Class
<———— Green revolution
They became wealthier
v <+———__ Nu merical Strength
Gained Political Power Universal Adult Suffrage
&
Formed Pressure Groups
y <———_ Reservation
Education & Public Employment
<+———— Sanskritisation
Elevated Social Status
Emergence of Dominant Caste
Basic Premises of Dominant caste
(1) Very arrogant and maintains social distance from other castes.
(2) Want their authority to be acknowledged
(3) They try to exert their influence on political and economic institutions.
(4) Formation of caste associations to put forth their motives and maintain unity eg.
Kurmi Kshatriya Sabha in U.P.
Dominant Caste and Social Mobilization (M.N. Sriniwas)
(1) Dwija Caste - Westernization
(2) Touchable lower castes - Sanskritisation
The Unique Academy
(3) Untouchables - Politicization
* Criticism of Concept : (S. C. Dube & Peter Gardner)
(1) Intra Caste Unity and articulation in terms of power is also necessary for
emergence of dominant caste.
(2). In absence of intra caste unity, the community power structure can be best
understood in terms of ‘dominant individuals or dominant factions’ and not
dominant caste.
* Conclusion : Dominant individuals and factions owe their dominance to their being part
of Dominant Caste.
341
Discuss the Concept of Dominant Caste in India - Basic Premises of Dominant Caste
(1) Very arrogant and maintains social distance from other castes.
(2) Want their authority to be acknowledged
(3) They try to exert their influence on political and economic institutions.
(4) Formation of caste associations to put forth their motives and maintain unity eg.
Kurmi Kshatriya Sabha in U.P.
342
Discuss the Concept of Dominant Caste in India - Dominant Caste and Social Mobilization (M.N. Srinivas)
(1) Dwija Caste - Westernization
(2) Touchable lower castes - Sanskritisation
The Unique Academy
(3) Untouchables - Politicization
343
Discuss the Concept of Dominant Caste in India - Criticism of the Concept
(1) Intra Caste Unity and articulation in terms of power is also necessary for
emergence of dominant caste.
(2). In absence of intra caste unity, the community power structure can be best
understood in terms of ‘dominant individuals or dominant factions’ and not
dominant caste.
344
Discuss the Concept of Dominant Caste in India - Conclusion
"Affirmation that dominant individuals and factions owe their dominance to their association with a dominant caste."
345
Note on Characteristics, Merits, and Demerits of Caste System - Characteristics
iehcodc
(1) The Innate Nature: determined by birth
(2) Endogamy: Inter caste marriage prohibited
(3) Hierarchy: local or regional in nature
(4) _Commensality: sharing or acceptance of food and water is governed by set of rules
(5) Occupational restrictions : by birth
The Unique Academy
(6) Disabilities - untouchable and Privileges -Brahmins & Dwija
(7) Caste Councils : Authority to compel obedience
346
Note on Characteristics, Merits, and Demerits of Caste System - Merits
spescd
(1) Social and Psychological security
(2) Efficiency in occupation
(3) Selection of Spouse
(4) Controlled behavior
(5) Division of Labour
347
Note on Characteristics, Merits, and Demerits of Caste System - Demerits
luendhr
(1) Lack of occupational mobility-hinders economic development
(2) Untouchability
(3) Exploitation of lower castes
(4) National unity affected. eg. Current Maratha v/s Dalit agitation in Maharashtra on
atrocity act. Patel agitation in Gujrat.
(5) Detrimental to democracy
(6) Hampers social communications between different segments of society
(7) Religious Conversions
348
Note on Characteristics, Merits, and Demerits of Caste System - Conclusion
"Demerits outweigh the merits
349
Compare and Contrast Varna and Jati Models of Caste System - Caste System in India
"Varna and Caste (Jati)Meaning
_ (i) — In India, Caste System has two models.
(ii) Indian society has been existing through a triangle consisting of joint family, caste
system and village organization. A very dominant proportion of Indian population
lives through this triangle. Any change in any one of them leads to social change.
(ili) After independence, Indian state sought to achieve a society according to the
constitution of India. i.e. egalitarianism.
(iv) Indian society was never an egalitarian society,
Refers to loose & broad clas-|Jati refers to an empirical category and ethnosification of Indian society. It} graphic reality. One can see a Jati in real field
is a classificatory or referral | situation through direct observation that may
scheme. not be a case in Varna. ze Some mobility allowed Very rigid no mobility allowed
Jati is more relevant because in the vast segment of rural and urban areas, one’s
identity is his jati. Of course in Metros like-.Delhi, Mumbai etc. where hundreds
of Jati are living together, here jati reference cannot make one understand about
the division of society. Therefore, Varna is a reference category and Jati is an
empirical category.
3 Varna hierarchy is fixed in na-jJati hierarchy may change from region to
ture region(variation at intermediate level)
The Unique Academy
3.2 (3)
4 Varna works at National level. | Jati works at local level.
Varna are four in number: According to anthropological survey of India,
B- Brahmin around 6000 castes are described as commu5 |K- Kshatriya nities, out of them, it has placed 4500 jati in
V- Vaishya alphabetic order & described through ethnoS - Shudra graphic note.
6 There is no room for untouch- | In Jati System, there are untouchables who are
ability in Varna integral part of it.
350
Views of Louis Dumont on Caste System in India
Dumont's perspective on caste system was primarily concerned with the ideology of the
caste system. His understanding of caste lays emphasis on attributes of caste that is why
his approach is called attributional approach to the caste system. For him caste is set of
relationships of economic, political and kinship systems, sustained by certain values which
are mostly religious in nature.
Dumont says that caste is not a form of stratification but a special form of inequality whose
essence has to be deciphered by the sociologists. Here he identifies hierarchy as the essential
value underlying the caste system supported by Hinduism.
351
Concept of Karma - Introduction
"Definition of Karma as action and the consequence of action. Significance of Karma in the Indian social order and its relation to Purushartha and other bases. Reference to Moksha and Dharma."
352
Concept of Karma - Meaning of Karma
"Explanation of Karma as good action (in line with dharma) leading to Moksha and bad action or failure of good action resulting in rebirth. Interpretation of Karma as a central idea in Hindu social order. Reference to the Bhagavad Gita's perspective on eternal Karma."
353
Concept of Karma - Aspects of Karma
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Adhisthana : means Centre of action
Karta : means doer
Chesta : means efforts
Deva : means fate
> Anelement of fatalism is involved when we refer to deva. We are certain to link it to
rebirth, “May be the result of your past deeds”, it leads to anti-social implications.
>» Dr. Sarvapalli Radha krishnan says that since Purushartha provides
us with ethical and moral order; none of its ingredients led to antisocial implications. Consequently he says, Deva is not fatalism, rather it
provides a determining effect for the society to create social constraints over
individual. He implies hope for the future and resignation of the past. It preaches
Purushartha and encourages everyone to do good Karma in relation with-other
bases :
354
Concept of Karma - Karma and Caste
"Linking the concept of Karma to the caste system and the justification of the conditions of lower castes and untouchables. Assertion that the concept reinforces the unfavorable conditions of these groups."
355
Concept of Karma - Importance of the Concept
"Stresses individual responsibility for actions. Highlights the consequences of actions and the need for awareness. Connection to the belief in rebirth. Introduction of a newer concept of Karma focusing on the present."
356
Critically Examine Concepts of Rina and Rebirth - Introduction
"Definition of Rina as social debt pervasive in the Indian value system. Types of Rina: Deva-Rina
357
Critically Examine Concepts of Rina and Rebirth - Different Types of Rina
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Deva-Rina:- (Indebtedness to God)
It refers to Rina to gods and goddess. The social mechanism to repay this debt is to
perform different rituals and to recite religious texts etc. eg. Yoga’s recitation of vedas
offering sacrifices.
Rishi-Rina:-(Indebtedness to Teacher)
It is a rina to teacher or Gurudev for eliminating darkness from the minds of
people, student and thereby to illuminate one's mind. The mechanism to repay this
rina is to pay tribute to teacher or dakshina and to share his knowledge with others.
Pitra-Rina : It is a debt to parents and ancestors. It should be repaid in the lifetime of
parents by serving them. After death, one must offer pind-dan through Gaya shradh.
Besides, one must procreate and children should be taken care of according to one's
capacity. . .
Atithi Rina : (Guest is God)
It means anyone who comes to one's household; he should not live in isolation.
Therefore atithi rina is very important obligation in order to strengthen social ties or
social solidarity or clanship’s solidarity as they treated their guest as god.
Every Hindu is supposed to repay all rinas in his lifetime and should do so while in
Grihastha.
358
Critically Examine Concepts of Rina and Rebirth - Concept of Rebirth
=¢ Introduction : Rina refers to social debt which is all pervasive in our value system. Every
individual comes to the world with certain debts and he has to repay this debt in his lifetime.
There are different types of rina including deva-rina, pitrarina, rishi-rina and atithi-rina. If
one fails to repay his debt, he cannot attain moksha and consequently he has to take rebirth.
It serves several socio economic purposes, in the past as well as in the present with certain
modification.
® Different Types of Rina
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Deva-Rina:- (Indebtedness to God)
It refers to Rina to gods and goddess. The social mechanism to repay this debt is to
perform different rituals and to recite religious texts etc. eg. Yoga’s recitation of vedas
offering sacrifices.
Rishi-Rina:-(Indebtedness to Teacher)
It is a rina to teacher or Gurudev for eliminating darkness from the minds of
people, student and thereby to illuminate one's mind. The mechanism to repay this
rina is to pay tribute to teacher or dakshina and to share his knowledge with others.
Pitra-Rina : It is a debt to parents and ancestors. It should be repaid in the lifetime of
parents by serving them. After death, one must offer pind-dan through Gaya shradh.
Besides, one must procreate and children should be taken care of according to one's
capacity. . .
Atithi Rina : (Guest is God)
It means anyone who comes to one's household; he should not live in isolation.
Therefore atithi rina is very important obligation in order to strengthen social ties or
social solidarity or clanship’s solidarity as they treated their guest as god.
Every Hindu is supposed to repay all rinas in his lifetime and should do so while in
Grihastha.
© Rebirth
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
If anyone fails to repay this debt and don’t follow good karma according to dharma
then one cannot attain moksha or salvation. Consequently he has to take rebirth.
It is based on Atma or Soul and its immortality. It says that soul is immortal and is part
of creator or Brahma. It is not perishable. The ultimate destination of Atma is to merge
with Brahma or Paramatma.
The body is like a cloak and outer covering which can be shaded off.
Although a wish for long life has always been there, however the idea of rebirth as a
nightmare has also been there.
According to popular implications of this concept, the soul does not merge with
Paramatma or creator. It has to enter a new body and the cycle continues unless one
performs his duties and obligations according to dharma.
When one relates rebirth with the karma and dharma, one can note that, if actions
are according to dharma then one is not required to take a new birth. Thus one
attains Salvation. That’s why it is referred to as a means of social control and it has
The Unique Academy
deterring effect on the behaviour of people from going astray so that all their actions
are controlled by the laid down norms. Thus the moksha is a reward & rebirth is a
punishment. .
® Relationship of Rina and Rebirth with other bases (refer to diagram in previous
question no. 3.1 (3)
® Relevance of Rina in Past (Responsibili
359
Critically Examine Concepts of Rina and Rebirth - Relationship of Rina and Rebirth with Other Bases
"Reference to the diagram in a previous question (3.1 (3))."
360
Critically Examine Concepts of Rina and Rebirth - Relevance of Rina in the Past
Relevance of Rina in Past (Responsibility)
(i) _ It makes individual responsible to himself, to his family and society.
(ii) It ensures the services of parents, bringing up of children and establishing a social
network and also establishes a relationship between living and dead.
(iii) The inclusion of supernatural entity in the concept of Rina makes the entire
humanity as a complete whole.
(iv) Thereby the concept of Rina and rebirth checks and regulates individual's
behavior which in turn helps in proper functioning of society.
361
Critically Examine Concepts of Rina and Rebirth - Factors and Forces Responsible for Changes
(1) Poverty & Unemployment
(2) Modern education which promotes individualism & consumerism
(3) Monetized economy
(4) Expanding means of transport & communications
(5) Urbanization and industrialization
362
Critically Examine Concepts of Rina and Rebirth - Present Relevance
"Acknowledging the modification of the concepts due to mentioned factors but highlighting their prevalence in rural India. Mentioning state interventions like the 'Parents Bill' in Himachal and Kerala. Affirming the continued influence of Rina and Rebirth as a guided principle in India."
363
Critically Examine Concepts of Rina and Rebirth - Overall Evaluation
"Assessing the enduring importance of these concepts in shaping social behavior and responsibilities in Indian society."
364
Critical Discussion of Purushartha - Dharma, Merits of Dharma
"Provides a moral compass for individuals and society. Ensures a sense of duty and righteousness."
365
Critical Discussion of Purushartha - Dharma, Demerits of Dharma
Purushartha : Purushartha refers to four goals or rather goal orientation or aims of life
namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. The wish for a long span of life on this earth is
the immediate desire of a person but the ultimate goal is Moksha (Liberation or Salvation).
The theory or doctrine of Purushartha explains the desired harmony between these two
aims. The theory of purushartha provides the basic principle of Indian ethical system. These
comprehend “the whole man”.
® Dharma : Of these four purushartha (also referred to as purusharthachatushtham),dharma
is central to all human activities. It is derived from the root dhr which means “to
uphold”. In his history of Dharmashastra, V. P. Kane, in very lucid terms, explained
Dharma as :
(i) The rights and duties of man as man.
(ii) His duties and privileges as a member of the Aryan Community.
(iii) His social duties, rights and function as a member of the social group or “Caste”,
Varna-Dharma.
(iv) The rights and obligations of every man in the changing stations of life as student,
householder, etc. Ashram-Dharma.
366
Critical Discussion of Purushartha - Artha, Merits of Artha
"Encourages economic activities for individual and societal prosperity. Allows for the pursuit of wealth through righteous means."
367
Critical Discussion of Purushartha - Artha, Demerits of Artha
Artha : Artha refers to all the means for acquiring worldly prosperity, such as wealth
or power. It means a righteous and honest pursuit of economic activities. Thus, all
economic activities are oriented towards :
(i) Acquisition of Wealth.
(ii) Aparigraha (non-appropriation).
(iii) Astey (non-sterling).
368
Critical Discussion of Purushartha - Kama, Merits of Kama
Kama : Kama refers to all desires in man, seeking pleasure through satisfaction. It
includes all impulses including sexual satisfaction. It also includes all impulses, instincts and
desires of man. It also includes aesthetic satisfaction. In spite of an emphasis on exercising
control over senses, man always crave for indulgence in sexual pleasures. To check this a
corrective balance has to be struck between the needs of body & mind.
369
Critical Discussion of Purushartha - Kama, Demerits of Kama
Kama : Kama refers to all desires in man, seeking pleasure through satisfaction. It
includes all impulses including sexual satisfaction. It also includes all impulses, instincts and
desires of man. It also includes aesthetic satisfaction. In spite of an emphasis on exercising
control over senses, man always crave for indulgence in sexual pleasures. To check this a
corrective balance has to be struck between the needs of body & mind.
370
Critical Discussion of Purushartha - Moksha, Merits of Moksha
Moksha
» Moksha is salvation/liberation from the endless cycle of births and deaths. It also refers
to absorption of the self into eternal bliss. Moksha also empties self-realization or
realization of the identity.
> Relationship of Purushartha with other bases of life
371
Critical Discussion of Purushartha - Moksha, Demerits of Moksha
Moksha
» Moksha is salvation/liberation from the endless cycle of births and deaths. It also refers
to absorption of the self into eternal bliss. Moksha also empties self-realization or
realization of the identity.
> Relationship of Purushartha with other bases of life
372
Factors and Forces for Changes in Purushartha - Modernization, How does modernization impact Purushartha?
(i) Emergence of Modern State : It is entrusted to look after the welfare of people and
maintenance of social order-no check of Dharma needed.
Gi) Introduction of Monetized Economy : Money can be stored for future purposes
without any difficulty-greed for money
(iii) Expanding means of transport and communication - no co-operation
The Unique Academy
(iv) Industrialization and urbanization — individualism, artha and kama more important
(v) Modern education- job oriented artha
(vi) Growing individualism and consumerism
373
Factors and Forces for Changes in Purushartha - Globalization, How does globalization impact Purushartha?
"Exposure to diverse cultures challenges the traditional interpretations of Purushartha. Individualism and consumerism influence prioritization of personal desires."
374
Factors and Forces for Changes in Purushartha - Education, How does education impact Purushartha?
"Job-oriented education may prioritize Artha over a holistic approach to Purushartha. Modern education often focuses on skill development rather than moral values."
375
Present Relevance of Purushartha - Moral Order, How does Purushartha contribute to the moral order?
"Purushartha continues to provide a psycho-moral basis for societal functioning. Self-regulation contributes to maintaining law and order despite challenges."
376
Present Relevance of Purushartha - Challenges, What challenges does Purushartha face in the present era?
Present Relevance
> Ideally relevance is there but practically not followed. Artha and Kama are given more
importance than Dharm.
> Purushartha the psycho-moral basis of Hindu Society is still working
> In spite of changes, it continues to maintain law and order in country. India is a
country of one billion plus population characterized by poverty, rampant unemployment
and underemployment, low level of literacy, inadequate enforcement of law and order.
Yet India shows low crime rate as compared to developed countries. For this a major
share goes to self-regulation by virtue of moral order like purushartha.
377
In conclusion, Conclusion on Purushartha, What is the conclusion regarding the relevance of Purushartha in the modern era?
In spite of changes, it continues to maintain law and order in country. India is a
country of one billion plus population characterized by poverty, rampant unemployment
and underemployment, low level of literacy, inadequate enforcement of law and order.
Yet India shows low crime rate as compared to developed countries. For this a major
share goes to self-regulation by virtue of moral order like purushartha.
378
Causes and Remedial Measures for Rapid Growth of Indian Population, Causes for Rapid Population Growth - High Birth Rate, Economic Factors, What economic factors contribute to a high birth rate in India?
"Intensive agriculture demands high labor
379
Causes and Remedial Measures for Rapid Growth of Indian Population, Causes for Rapid Population Growth - High Birth Rate, Social Factors, What social factors contribute to a high birth rate in India?
"Near universality of marriage and lower age at marriage contribute to early and frequent childbirth. Religious and social superstitions
380
Causes and Remedial Measures for Rapid Growth of Indian Population, Causes for Rapid Population Growth - Low Death Rate, What factors contribute to a low death rate in India?
Cultural Factors:
Family Support Systems: Strong family networks.
Traditional Remedies: Use of herbal and natural remedies.
Dietary Practices: Healthy eating habits.
Community Cohesion: Strong community bonds.
Hygiene Practices: Emphasis on cleanliness.
Social Factors:
Improved Education: Better education levels.
Social Welfare Schemes: Government support programs.
Health Awareness: Increased knowledge about health.
Women's Empowerment: Enhanced status of women.
Urbanization: Access to urban healthcare facilities.
Health and Medical Factors:
Medical Advancements: Innovations in healthcare.
Better Healthcare Access: More hospitals and clinics.
Vaccination Programs: Effective immunization.
Maternal and Child Care: Focused health programs.
Disease Control: Reduced infectious diseases.
Environmental Factors:
Clean Water: Access to safe drinking water.
Sanitation: Improved sanitation practices.
Pollution Control: Reduced pollution levels.
Waste Management: Efficient waste disposal.
Economic Factors:
Economic Growth: Better economic conditions.
Higher Incomes: Increased household incomes.
Better Nutrition: Improved diets.
Food Security: Stable food supply.
Government Policies:
Health Programs: Implementation of health initiatives.
Public Health Campaigns: Awareness campaigns.
Health Infrastructure: Investment in healthcare facilities.
Health Legislation: Laws ensuring better health standards.
381
Causes and Remedial Measures for Rapid Growth of Indian Population, Causes for Rapid Population Growth - Immigration, How does immigration influence population growth in India?
Increase in Population Size:
Influx of immigrants directly adds to the overall population numbers.
Labor Force Augmentation:
Immigrants often contribute to the labor force, especially in sectors with labor shortages, impacting economic growth and indirectly influencing population dynamics.
Demographic Changes:
Alters the age and gender composition of the population, often bringing in younger working-age individuals.
Cultural and Social Diversity:
Introduces new cultural and social practices, which can influence fertility rates and family structures.
Economic Impact:
Boosts economic activity and development, potentially improving healthcare and living standards, thereby affecting birth and death rates.
Urbanization:
Many immigrants move to urban areas, accelerating urban population growth and contributing to urbanization trends.
Policy and Governance:
Immigration can influence government policies on population control, housing, and social services, impacting overall population growth strategies.
Remittances and Financial Flows:
Financial remittances sent by immigrants can improve economic conditions for their families back home, possibly influencing birth rates and population growth.
Education and Skill Levels:
Influx of skilled immigrants can lead to a more educated population, which can have long-term effects on population growth patterns.
Health Services:
Increased demand for health services due to immigration can lead to improvements in healthcare infrastructure, potentially lowering mortality rates.
382
Causes and Remedial Measures for Rapid Growth of Indian Population, Consequences of Overpopulation - Economic Consequences, What are the economic consequences of overpopulation in India?
@ (ii) (iii)
(iv) (v) (vi)
Low per capita income
Inadequate food production
Growing unemployment and under employment
Low standard of living, education, medical and housing facilities
Low level of capital formation
Environmental degradation
383
Causes and Remedial Measures for Rapid Growth of Indian Population, Consequences of Overpopulation - Employment Challenges, What employment challenges arise due to overpopulation in India?
"Growing unemployment and underemployment."
384
Causes and Remedial Measures for Rapid Growth of Indian Population, Consequences of Overpopulation - Social Consequences, What are the social consequences of overpopulation in India?
"Low standards of living
385
Causes and Remedial Measures for Rapid Growth of Indian Population, Remedial Measures - Economic Measures, What economic measures can be taken to control population growth in India?
"Expansion of the industrial sector to create employment opportunities. Equitable distribution of income to reduce poverty."
386
Causes and Remedial Measures for Rapid Growth of Indian Population, Remedial Measures - Social Measures, What social measures can be taken to control population growth in India?
"Education of the masses to promote awareness and understanding of family planning. Improvement in the status of women through education and empowerment. Addressing religious and social superstitions influencing family size."
387
Causes and Remedial Measures for Rapid Growth of Indian Population, Remedial Measures - Family Planning Programs, What are the components of family planning programs in India?
"Public information programs to educate about family planning methods. Incentives and disincentives to encourage family planning. Establishing family planning centers and promoting non-terminal contraceptives. Research and innovation in contraceptive methods."
388
Causes and Remedial Measures for Rapid Growth of Indian Population, Remedial Measures - Healthcare Initiatives, What healthcare initiatives can contribute to population control in India?
"Reproductive and child health care programs. Mother health initiatives
389
Causes and Remedial Measures for Rapid Growth of Indian Population, Critical Appraisal - Overemphasis on Contraceptives, What criticism exists regarding the focus on contraceptives in population control measures?
Ethical Concerns:
Coercion
Informed consent
Reproductive rights
Autonomy
Cultural Sensitivity:
Cultural beliefs
Religious norms
Community resistance
Gender Inequality:
Female burden
Male contraceptives
Male involvement
Health Risks:
Side effects
Health risks
Healthcare support
Access and Availability:
Rural access
Marginalized communities
Cost
Availability
Holistic Approach:
Education
Economic development
Women's empowerment
Integration
Sustainability:
External funding
Supply dependency
Local capacity
Effectiveness:
Inconsistent use
Discontinuation
Education
Follow-up
Stigmatization:
Social pressure
Stigma
Promiscuity association
Economic Factors:
Economic constraints
Poverty
Economic inequalities
Long-Term Impact:
Demographic trends
Population momentum
Education investment
Healthcare systems
Political and Ideological Influences:
Political agendas
Ideological influences
Demographic targets
Individual well-being
390
Causes and Remedial Measures for Rapid Growth of Indian Population, Critical Appraisal - Inappropriateness of Approaches, What criticism exists regarding the historical shifts in family planning approaches?
Sure, here's a simplified, micro notes format summarizing the criticisms of historical shifts in family planning approaches:
Criticisms of Historical Shifts in Family Planning Approaches
Ethical Issues
- **Coercion:** Forced sterilizations, lack of informed consent
- **Reproductive Rights:** Violations, lack of autonomy
Cultural Insensitivity
- **Traditional Values:** Ignored cultural beliefs
- **Religious Norms:** Disregarded religious practices
- **Community Resistance:** Pushback from local communities
Gender Inequality
- **Female Burden:** Overemphasis on women
- **Male Contraceptives:** Limited focus
- **Gender Disparities:** Unequal responsibility
Health Risks
- **Side Effects:** Potential health complications
- **Medical Support:** Inadequate follow-up
- **Health Complications:** Unaddressed issues
Access Inequality
- **Rural vs Urban:** Disparities in access
- **Marginalized Groups:** Neglected populations
- **Cost Barriers:** Financial obstacles
Short-Term Focus
- **Demographic Trends:** Overlooked long-term trends
- **Temporary Solutions:** Short-lived fixes
- **Sustainability:** Lack of long-term policies
Stigmatization
- **Social Stigma:** Negative perceptions
- **Promiscuity:** Misconceptions
- **Resistance:** Social pushback
Economic Constraints
- **Affordability:** Cost issues
- **Inequality:** Economic disparities
- **Poverty:** Broader impacts
Political and Ideological Influences
- **Agendas:** Policy driven by politics
- **Individual Rights:** Ignored autonomy
- **Demographic Goals:** Overemphasis on targets
Insufficient Education
- **Awareness:** Poor knowledge
- **Information:** Inadequate details
- **Misuse:** Incorrect application
Poor Integration with Other Services
- **Education and Economy:** Neglected factors
- **Fragmented Services:** Lack of holistic approach
- **Comprehensive Approach:** Limited integration
Sustainability Issues
- **External Funding:** Dependency
- **Local Capacity:** Insufficient development
- **Short-Lived Programs:** Lack of long-term success
This format provides a quick reference to the main points, useful for review and study purposes.
391
Causes and Remedial Measures for Rapid Growth of Indian Population, Critical Appraisal - Poor Infrastructure, How does poor infrastructure impact the implementation of population control measures?
"Insufficient infrastructure hampers the effective implementation of population control measures."
392
Causes and Remedial Measures for Rapid Growth of Indian Population, Conclusion, What is the conclusion regarding India's population control?
India's population control faces challenges due to ethical concerns, cultural insensitivity, gender inequality, health risks, and economic disparities, requiring a holistic, rights-based, and sustainable approach for effective outcomes.
393
Debate on the Negroid Element in India, Proponents of Negrito Element - Hutton's Observations, What did Hutton observe in the Angami Naga regarding Negrito features?
"Sporadic occurrences of Negrito hair. Features such as dark brown to black skin
394
Debate on the Negroid Element in India, Proponents of Negrito Element - Support from Basu and Guha, What did Basu and Guha find among the Kadar individuals?
"Woolly and frizzly hair among 16 Kadar individuals. Claimed Tasmanian and Melanesian affinities based on collected cranial material from the Naga Hills."
395
Debate on the Negroid Element in India, Proponents of Negrito Element - Claimed Melanesian Affinity, What did Guha argue regarding the skull features in relation to Negrito skulls?
=Guha argued that the skull features of Negrito populations, such as smaller size and specific cranial characteristics, reflect adaptation to specific environmental and genetic factors.
396
Debate on the Negroid Element in India, Arguments Against the Negrito Element - Criticism of Guha's View, What criticism did Guha's claim face?
"Criticism for placing excessive emphasis on the single criterion of hair texture and overclaiming evidence based on limited criteria."
397
Debate on the Negroid Element in India, Arguments Against the Negrito Element - Hair Mutation Explanation, According to Fisher, how could woolly hair occur in India?
"Could occur from a mutation from wavy hair
398
Debate on the Negroid Element in India, Arguments Against the Negrito Element - Studies by Sarakar and Majumdar, What did Sarakar's study of the Kadar in South India conclude?
"No Negrito element is demonstrated among the Kadar in South India."
399
Debate on the Negroid Element in India, Arguments Against the Negrito Element - Studies by Sarakar and Majumdar, What did Majumdar argue regarding the distribution of Negrito elements in India?
Majumdar argued that the distribution of Negrito elements in India indicates ancient migratory patterns and genetic intermingling with indigenous populations, suggesting a complex history of human settlement and diversity.
400
Debate on the Negroid Element in India, Arguments Against the Negrito Element - Eicksteadt's View, According to Eicksteadt, why did confusion arise regarding Negrito elements in India?
"Confusion arose due to a failure to differentiate between woolly hair and spiral-frizzly hair."
401
Debate on the Negroid Element in India, Conclusion, What is the conclusion regarding the Negrito element in India?
The Negrito element in India reflects ancient migrations, genetic diversity, and the complex history of early human settlements in the region.
402
Concept of Survivals in Anthropology, Definition and Origin, What do survivals in anthropology refer to?
"Cultural phenomena that continue to exist beyond the conditions under which they originated. Coined by E. B. Tylor."
403
Concept of Survivals in Anthropology, Tylor's Perspective, How did Tylor distinguish between customs regarding their function?
"Distinguished between continuing customs with maintained function and those losing utility and poorly integrated
404
Concept of Survivals in Anthropology, Expansion to Material Culture, How did Tylor extend the concept of survivals to material culture?
Edward B. Tylor extended the concept of "survivals" to material culture by suggesting that many contemporary cultural practices, artifacts, and objects can be seen as remnants of earlier stages of human development. According to Tylor, these "survivals" are cultural elements that have persisted into the present even though the original context or function may no longer be relevant. For example, certain customs, tools, or clothing styles that seem outdated or unnecessary in the modern world can be traced back to previous cultural contexts where they had practical or symbolic importance. Tylor's analysis of these survivals provided a way to understand how aspects of material culture evolve and persist over time, reflecting historical continuity within cultural practices.
405
Concept of Survivals in Anthropology, McLennan's Symbolic Forms, How did McLennan use survivals in anthropology?
"Used survivals to denote symbolic forms of earlier customs. Example: Mock battles in nuptial rituals seen as survivals of a past stage involving the capture or kidnapping of women."
406
Concept of Survivals in Anthropology, Malinowski's Functional View, How did Malinowski view survivals in terms of functionality?
"Rejected the idea that any part of culture could be disconnected
407
Concept of Survivals in Anthropology, Tylor's Doctrine, How did Tylor use the doctrine of survivals to analyze customs?
"Used the doctrine to analyze the symbolic meaning of social customs. Argued that seemingly meaningless customs were survivals
408
Concept of Survivals in Anthropology, Tylor's Doctrine, What did Tylor see as proof of cultural evolution in advanced societies?
"Traces of earlier customs that persisted into present-day cultures
409
Concept of Survivals in Anthropology, Conclusion, What does the concept of survivals in anthropology provide?
"A framework for understanding cultural phenomena that persist beyond their original context. Encompasses both symbolic and material elements
410
Risley’s Classification of Ethnic Elements in India, Background, Who conducted a racial classification of India based on anthropometric techniques?
"W. Risley"
411
Risley’s Classification of Ethnic Elements in India, Background, When did Risley conduct the racial classification of India?
"During his tenure as Census Commissioner in 1890."
412
Risley’s Classification of Ethnic Elements in India, Seven Racial Types, How many racial types did Risley classify the Indian population into?
"Seven"
413
Risley’s Classification of Ethnic Elements in India, Turko-Iranian Type, Which regions were included in the Turko-Iranian type?
"Baluchistan and frontier provinces (now in Pakistan)"
414
Risley’s Classification of Ethnic Elements in India, Indo-Aryan Type, Which communities were encompassed by the Indo-Aryan type?
Risley’s Indo-Aryan type includes upper-caste Hindus from North India, Punjabis, Bengalis, Marathas, Gujaratis (Patidars), Sikhs, and higher-caste Kashmiris, characterized by fair skin, long heads, narrow noses, and slender builds.
415
Risley’s Classification of Ethnic Elements in India, Scytho-Dravidian Type, Which communities were included in the Scytho-Dravidian type?
"Marathas
416
Risley’s Classification of Ethnic Elements in India, Aryo-Dravidian Type, Which regions were represented by the Aryo-Dravidian type?
Risley’s Aryo-Dravidian type encompasses populations in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, exhibiting a blend of Aryan and Dravidian traits, marked by intermediate skin tone, mesocephalic head shape, and mixed physical features.
417
Risley’s Classification of Ethnic Elements in India, Mongolo-Dravidian Type, Which communities were represented by the Mongolo-Dravidian type?
"Bengali Brahmins and Kayathas"
418
Risley’s Classification of Ethnic Elements in India, Mongoloid Type, Which regions were covered by the Mongoloid type?
"Assam
419
Risley’s Classification of Ethnic Elements in India, Dravidian Type, Which regions were encompassed by the Dravidian type?
"Bulk of the population in present Tamil Nadu
420
Risley’s Classification of Ethnic Elements in India, Criticism, What were the main criticisms of Risley's classification?
Risley's classification was criticized for its reliance on outdated racial theories, simplistic racial categories, and the neglect of cultural and social factors in understanding India's diverse populations.
421
Risley’s Classification of Ethnic Elements in India, Criticism, What impact did biases and stereotypes have on Risley's classification?
"Prejudiced assumptions impacted the accuracy and reliability of the racial categorizations."
422
Risley’s Classification of Ethnic Elements in India, Conclusion, What was the outcome of Risley's attempt to classify ethnic elements in India?
Risley's attempt to classify ethnic elements in India reinforced colonial racial hierarchies, promoted divisive caste distinctions, and faced significant criticism for its pseudoscientific basis and lack of cultural sensitivity and accuracy.
