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AS biology > 3.2 transport in animals > Flashcards

3.2 transport in animals Flashcards

1
Q

double circulatory system

A

blood flows through the heart twice on each complete circuit of the body

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2
Q

single circulatory system

A

blood flows through the heart once for each circuit of the body

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3
Q

need for a transport system in large animals

A
  • all animals need oxygen + nutrients to grow and survive
  • need to remove waste products so they dont build up and become toxic
  • large animals mean diffusion distance is too long, and not efficient enough to supply all the requirements
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4
Q

3 factors that influence the need for a transport system

A
  • size
  • SA:V
  • level of metabolic activity
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5
Q

how does size affect need for a transport system

A
  • cells inside a LARGER organism are further from surface
  • greater diffusion distance
  • diffusion too slow to supply all requirements
  • ALSO, outer cells use up supplies so less reaches the cells deep inside
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6
Q

how does SA:V affect need for a transport system

A
  • small animals = LARGE sa:V
    -for each unit3 of tissue in their body they have a sufficient area through which exchange can occur
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7
Q

how does level of metabolic activity affect need for a transport system

A
  • animals need energy to move, which requires oxygen for aerobic respiration
  • animals that keep themselves warm (eg mammals) need even more energy
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8
Q

3 features of a good transport system (humans)

A
  1. effective fluid or medium to carry nutrients, oxygen and waste around the body (blood)
  2. a pump to create pressure to push the fluid around the body (heart)
  3. exchange surfaces to allow substances to enter the blood and leave where needed (capillaries)
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9
Q

fish type of circulatory system

A

single

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10
Q

mammals type of circulatory system

A

double - 2 separate circuits

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11
Q

pulmonary circulation

A

circuit that carries blood to longs to be oxygenated

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12
Q

systemic circulation

A

circuit that carries the oxygen and nutrients around the body to the tissues

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13
Q

single circulatory of fish disadvantages

A
  • blood pressure drops as blood passes through capillaries of the gills
  • blood has a low pressure as it flows towards the body, so flows slowly
  • limited rate at which oxygen and nutrients are delivered to respiring tissues and co2 and urea are removes
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14
Q

why is it not a problem that fish circulatory system is only single and bad

A
  • fish are less metabolically active than mammals as dont maintain body temperature
  • so need less energy
    -single circulatory delivers sufficient oxygen and nutrients for their needs
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15
Q

of the 2 circulatory systems WITHIN double, which carries blood at a higher pressure

A

systemic (oxygenated blood to respiring tissues)

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16
Q

why must pressure be lower in pulmonary circulation

A

to not damage the delicate lung capillaries

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17
Q

arteries

A

carry blood away from heart

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18
Q

arterioles

A

small blood vessels, distribute blood from an artery to the capillaries

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19
Q

closed circulatory system

A

blood held in vessels

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20
Q

open circulatory system

A

blood not held in vessels

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21
Q

disadvantage of open circulatory system

A
  • bp low so slow blood flow
  • circulation of blood affected by (or lack of ) body movements
  • slower delivery of o2 and nutrients
  • slower removal of co2 and other wastes
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22
Q

what bathes tissues and cells in OPEN circulatory

A

blood

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23
Q

what bathes the cells in CLOSED circulatory

A

tissue fluis

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24
Q

advantages of closed circulatory system

A
  • higher bp, so quicker blood flow
  • more rapid delivery of oxygen and nutrients
  • more rapid removal of CO2 and other wastes
  • transport independent of body movements
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25
Q

what do all blood vessels have

A

endothelium

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26
Q

endothelium

A
  • thin inner lining layer
  • smooth to reduce friction with the blood
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27
Q

why is the artery wall thick

A

to withstand high pressure

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28
Q

artery lumen? (2)

A
  • small to maintain high pressure
  • inner wall folded to allow lumen to expand as blood flow increases
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29
Q

three layers of wall

A

innermost to outermost
- tunica intima
- tunica media
- tunica adventitia

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30
Q

tunica intima

A
  • endothelium
  • elastic tissue
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31
Q

tunica media

A
  • smooth muscle + elastic tissue
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32
Q

tunica adventitia

A
  • collagen
    -elastic tissue
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33
Q

purpose of elastic tissue

A

stretch and recoil to withstand blood pressure, and MAINTAIN

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34
Q

purpose of smooth muscle

A
  • strengthen walls to waistband pressure
  • contract and narrow lumen to reduce blood flow
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35
Q

purpose of collagen

A

protects blood vessels from damage by over stretching

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36
Q

why do arteries near the heart have more elastic tissue

A
  • stretch and recoil
  • evens out fluctuations in blood pressure created by the heart
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37
Q

arteriole walls contain

A

smooth muscle

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38
Q

why is it important arterioles have smooth muscle

A
  • can contract to constrict diameter of lumen
  • increases resistance to flow and reduces rate of blood flow
  • can divert the flow of blood to regions of the body that demand more oxygen
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39
Q

capillary lumen

A
  • very narrow
  • diameter of red blood cell
  • RBCs squeeze through as they pass along, helping the transfer of o2
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40
Q

capillary walls (2)

A
  • single layer of flattened endothelial cells -> short diffusion distance for materials being exhcanged
  • leaky walls -> allows plasma and dissolved substances to leave the blood
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41
Q

venules

A

connect capillary to vein

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42
Q

vein lumen

A

large
- low pressure blood, reduces friction

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43
Q

vein walls (2)

A
  • less thick
  • thinner collagen, elastic tissue and smooth muscle as dont need to stretch and recoil as low pressure
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44
Q

veins contain …

A

Valves

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45
Q

purpose of valves

A

prevent back flow of blood

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46
Q

how is some blood in the veins moved

A
  • thin walls mean contraction of surrounding skeletal muscle flattens vein
  • pressure applied to blood, forcing it to move along
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47
Q

hydrostatic pressure

A

exerted by a fluid when pushing against the sides of a vessel

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48
Q

lymph

A

fluid in lymphatic system

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49
Q

oncotic pressure

A

pressure created by osmotic effects of solutes

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50
Q

blood contains

A

PLASMA

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51
Q

What does blood plasma contain (7)

A

dissolved substances
- o2 + co2
- glucose
- amino acids
- hormones
- platelets
-RBCs

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52
Q

where is blood

A

contained in vessels (closed circulatory )

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53
Q

difference in tissue fluid v blood plasma

A
  1. tissue fluid doesnt contain cells or plasma proteins
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54
Q

how is tissue fluid formed

A
  • blood flowing to tissues is in the CAPILLARIES
  • at the arterial end of the capillary, the blood has a high hydrostatic pressure. the pressure pushes the blood fluid out of the capillaries through the capillary wall.
  • the fluid that leaves consists of plasma with dissolved nutrients and oxygen (tissue fluid)
  • RBC,WBC, Platelets are all too large to be pushed out of the small gaps in the capillary wall
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55
Q

how does tissue fluid re enter blood

A
  • bp at VENOUS end of capillary is lower
  • some tissue fluid returns to the capillary carrying co2 and other waste into the blood
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56
Q

does all tissue fluid return to the blood?

A

NO
Some is directed to the lymphatic system, which drains excess tissue fluid out of the tissues and returns it to the blood via the subclavian vein in the chest

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57
Q

fluid in the lymphatic system

A

lymph (similar to tissue fluid with more lymphocytes)

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58
Q

how do lymph nodes become swollen

A
  • tissue is infected -> capillaries more leaky -> more fluid directed into the lymph system
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59
Q

compare the pressures in blood plasma, tissue fluid and lymph

A

blood plasma: - high hydrostatic, more negative oncotic
tissue fluid: - low hydrostatic, less negative oncotic
lymph: - low hydrostatic, less negative oncotic

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60
Q

hydrostatic pressure of blood…

A

pushes fluid out into the tissues

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61
Q

hydrostatic pressure of tissue fluid…

A

pushes fluid into capillaries

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62
Q

oncotic pressure is always

A

negative

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63
Q

oncotic pressure of blood…

A

pulls water back into blood

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64
Q

result of all the forces

A

creates a pressure gradient
- fluid pushed out of capillary at arterial end
- fluid pushed into capillary at venule end

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65
Q

right side of heart

A

pushes deox blood to the lungs to be oxygenated

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66
Q

left side of heart

A

pumps ox blood to the rest of the body

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67
Q

coronary arteries

A
  • surface of heart
  • supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle
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68
Q

atria

A

upper chambers

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69
Q

ventricles

A

lower chambers

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70
Q

Right side of heart blood flow

A
  • deox blood
  • enters heart through vena cava
  • into right atrium
  • through AV valve
  • to right ventricle
  • leaves throguh pulmonary artery to lungs
  • where it is oxygenated
71
Q

left side of heart blood flow

A
  • ox blood from lungs
  • enters through pulmonary vein
  • into left atrium
  • through AV valve into ventricle
  • leaves through aorta
  • to rest of body
72
Q

septum

A
  • wall of muscle separating the ventricles
  • ensures ox and deox are kept separate
73
Q

where are the semilunar valves

A

at the base of the major arteries where they exit the heart
- prevent back flow when the ventricles relax

74
Q

why are atrial walls thin

A
  • chambers dont need to create much pressure
  • push blood a short distance down to the ventricle
75
Q

right ventricle walls

A
  • thicker than atrium
  • less thick than left ventricle
  • not as high a pressure needed as blood goes a shorter distance to the lungs
  • alveoli are delicate and could be damages by high bp
76
Q

atrial systole

A
  • left and right atria contract together
  • small increase of pressure
77
Q

ventricular systole

A
  • left and right ventricles contract
78
Q

where does contraction start

A

the base(apex) of the heart so blood is pushed up towards the arteries

79
Q

diastole

A
  • muscular walls of all chambers relax
  • elastic recoil allows an increase of volume so blood can flow in
80
Q

affinity

A

strong attraction

81
Q

dissociation

A

releasing the oxygen from the oxyhaemoglobin

82
Q

haemoglobin + oxygen ->

A

oxyhaemoglobin

83
Q

when does association of oxygen and haemoglobin occur

A

in the lungs
- where pO2 is high

84
Q

when does dissociation of oxygen and haemoglobin occur

A

in the tissues
- where pO2 is low

85
Q

veins have little

A

elastic fibre or smooth muscle

86
Q

what is pO2

A
  • partial pressure of oxygen
  • amount of o2 dissolved in the blood
87
Q

transport of oxygen

A
  • oxygen absorbed in blood from alveoli in lungs
  • o2 molecules enter blood plasma
  • become associated with the haemoglobin inside the erythrocytes
  • takes o2 molecules out of solution so maintains a steep concentration gradient, allowing more o2 to enter the blood from the lungs
  • blood carried to body tissues
    -o2 dissociates to release the oxygen for aerobic respiration
88
Q

units of partial pressure

A

kPa

89
Q

cardiac output =

A

heart rate * stroke volume

90
Q

tachycardia

A

-heart beats too fast
-heart rate over 100 bpm
- qrs peaks too close together

91
Q

bradycardia

A
  • heart beats too slow
  • heart rate below 60bpm
  • lots of athletes have as fit so cardiac muscle contracts harder so fewer contractions required
  • qrs far apart
92
Q

fibrillation

A

-irregular heartbeat disturbing the rhythm

93
Q

ectopic heartbeat

A
  • heart beats too early, followed by a pause
  • larger qrs too soon
94
Q

P wave

A

atrial systole

95
Q

QRS complex

A

ventricular systole

96
Q

T wave

A

ventricular diastole

97
Q

how do ECG’s work

A
  • monitor electrical activity of heart
  • electrodes placed on skin
  • produce an ECG
98
Q

red blood cells are known as

A

erythrocytes

99
Q

what happens after the first o2 molecule binds to haemoglobin

A

CONFIRMATIONAL CHANGE
- allows the next one to bind easier, known as cooperative binding

100
Q

3 ways co2 is transported around the body

A
  1. directly in the plasma
  2. bindsto haemoglobin, forming carbaminohaemoglobin
  3. MOST in HCO3- ions
101
Q

how are hydrogen carbonate ions formed

A
  • CO2 diffuses from plasma into RBC’s
  • inside, co2 + h20 -> H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
  • catalysed by carbonic anhydrase enzyme found in RBC’s
  • H2CO3 dissociates into HCO3- and H+ ions
  • haemoglobin acts as a BUFFER -> it combines with h+ ions to form haemoglobinic acid so prevents them from lowering the pH in the cell
  • the HCO3- ions diffuse out of the RBC into the blood plasma
102
Q

why does H2CO3 take longer to form in plasma than in RBC’s

A

plasma doesnt contain the carbonic anhydrase enzyme which catalyses the reaction

103
Q

Chloride shift

A
  • after the HCO3- ions are transported out of the RBC’s by a transport protein
  • to prevent an electrical imbalance, negatively charged Cl- ions are transported into the RBC’s by the same transport protein
104
Q

what would happen without the chloride shift

A

RBC’s would be positively charged due to a buildup of h+ ions formed from the dissociation of H2CO3

105
Q

when is haemoglobin staurated

A

all oxygen binding sites are taken up with oxygen
- contains 4 O2 molecules

106
Q

when haemoglobin has a high affinity…

A

it binds easily and dissociates slowly

107
Q

when haemoglobin has a low affinity…

A

it binds slowly and dissociates easily

108
Q

where in the body is po2 low (bottom left of graph)

A

respiring cells

109
Q

explain the sigmoidal haemoglobin curve

A
  1. very shallow bottom left- is difficult for the first o2 molecule to bind
  2. conformational change- is easier for the second and third molecule to bind
  3. molecule approaches saturation, so takes longer for the 4th o2 molecule to bind
110
Q

where is po2 high (top right of graph)

A

lungs

111
Q

foetal haemoglobin has

A

a higher a affinity for oxygen than adult haemoglobin

112
Q

why does foetal haemoglobin have a higher affinity

A
  • po2 oxygen low in placenta
  • mothers haemoglobin dissociates at these lower po2
  • but fetal has a higher affinity so takes UP oxygen at lower po2
113
Q

curve for foetal haemoglobin

A

is to the left of adult
at any given po2, foetal haemoglobin has a higher percentage saturation than adult

114
Q

why is it important that after birth babies begin to produce adult haemoglobin

A
  • easy release of o2 in the respiring tissues for a more metabolically active individual
115
Q

curve furthest to the left means

A

haemoglobin with the HIGHEST affinity for oxygen

116
Q

po2 at lower altitudes

A

lower

117
Q

the Bohr effect on the curve

A

down to the right

118
Q

what is the Bohr effect

A
  • effect of increasing CO2 on haemoglobin
  • haemoglobin cant hold as much oxygen, so oxygen released to tissues
    -overall, when more co2 is present, haemoglobin is less saturated with o2
  • it means that when there is more co2 (because of increased respiration) more o2 is released, which is what the muscles need
119
Q

invertebrate circulatory system

A
  • heart is segmented. the blood is pumped, starting from the back into a single main artery
  • the artery opens up into the body cavity
  • the blood bathes the insect’s organs, gradually making its way back into the heart segments through valves
120
Q

which of the 3 fluids contains RBCs

A

blood only
they are too big to fit through the capillary walls

121
Q

which of the 3 fluids contain WBCs

A

all three
- most nbc’s are in the lymph, and are only in tissue fluid when there an INFECTION

122
Q

which of the 3 fluids contains platelets

A

ONLY blood (too big to fit through capillary walls)

123
Q

which of the 3 fluids contains proteins

A

mostly blood (the rest are too big)
lymph only has antibodies

124
Q

which of the 3 fluids contains water

A

all three
WP of blood lower than the other 2

125
Q

when the pressure is greater BEHIND a valve…

A

its forced open

126
Q

when the pressure is greater IN FRONT of a valve

A

its forced shut

127
Q

myogenic

A

contracts and relaxes without receiving signals from the nerves

128
Q

electrical pathway

A
  • SAN (pacemaker) sets the rhythm of the heartbeat by sending wave of excitation to atrial wall
  • the right and left atria contract at the same time (atrial systole)
    -the nonconducting collagen tissue at the base of the atria cant conduct the wave of excitation. So the only route for the wave is to the AVN
  • AVN delays the wave
  • wave spreads down septum, then bundle of His to the purkyne tissue, which carries the wave of excitation to the walls of the left and right ventricles, which contract simultaneously from the bottom (APEX) up
129
Q

where is the SAN

A

wall of the right atrium- near the vena cava entrance

130
Q

Where is the AVN

A

top of the septum

131
Q

what does the AVN do

A
  • delays the wave of excitation to allow the atria to finish contracting and for the blood to flow down into the ventricles before they contract
  • sends impulse to septum (bundle of his)
132
Q

how is hydrostatic pressure created in the heart (1)

A

contraction of VENTRICLE

133
Q

why does hydrostatic pressure decrease as blood moves away from the heart

A
  • divides into more smaller vessels
  • have a larger cross sectional area
  • reduced resistance to blood flow
134
Q

3 reasons for large organisms needing system

A
  • small SA:V
  • large (diffusion pathway too long so too slow to supply enough oxygen and prevent CO2 building up)
  • high metabolic rate (v active)
135
Q

ECG is

A

electrocardiogram

136
Q

SAN

A

Sino-atrial node

137
Q

AVN

A

atrio-ventricular node

138
Q

need for the delay at the AVN (3)

A
  • atria fully contract
  • ventricles fill
  • so ventricles dont contract too early
139
Q

why do the purkyne fibres spread wave of excitation to the APEX of the ventricles (3)

A
  • systole starts at the bottom
  • so blood is pushed upwards into the arteries
  • ventricles are fully emptied
140
Q

explain the fluctuation in the pressure in the aorta

A
  • systole of left ventricle increases pressure
  • diastole decreases pressure
141
Q

number of fluctuations in aorta per minute is

A

HEART RATE

142
Q

Why MUST blood pressure be Lowe run the capillaries

A
  • walls only one cell thick
  • would burst
143
Q

does tissue fluid contain neutrophils

A

yes

144
Q

advantage of blood in vessels

A
  • higher BP
  • higher rate of flow
  • flow can be directed
145
Q

withstanding pressure in the arteries (2)

A
  • thick walls, collagen, strong
  • folded endothelium, no damage to wall
146
Q

maintaining pressure in the arteries (2)

A
  • elastic fibres -> recoil
  • smooth muscle -> NARROWS lumen
147
Q

WHY DOES The left ventricle have more muscle than left atrium

A
  • more force
  • higher pressure
  • BLOOD PUSHED AGAINST GREATER FRICTION
  • blood pumped a further distance
148
Q

what does every efficient circulatory system contain (+ parallels to mammals)

A

pump - heart
means of maintaining pressure - artery
transport medium - blood
exchange surface - capillaries

149
Q

Bohr shift moves

A

to the RIGHT- affinity for o2 decreases

150
Q

biggest diff in skeletal and cardiac muscle

A
  • cardiac is myogenic
  • cardiac doesnt fatigue
151
Q

when talking about wall thickness and blood reference …

A
  • force
  • pressure
  • distance of blood flow
152
Q

3 stages of cardiac cycle

A
  • atrial systole
  • ventricular systole
  • (a then v) diastole
153
Q

describe diastole

A

-atria and ventricles relaxed
- blood enters atria via vena cava and pulmonary vein
- pressure of the blood increases within the atria

154
Q

describe atrial systole

A
  • atrial muscle walls contract, increasing the pressure further
  • AV Valves opem, bloof flows to ventricles
    -ventircles are still relaxed at this point
155
Q

describe ventricular systole

A
  • after delay due to AVN, ventricle walls contract, increasing the pressure MORE than the atria
  • AV valves close, semilunar valves open
  • blood pushed out of ventricles into pulmonary artery and aorta
156
Q

stroke volume

A

vol of blood that leaves the heart at each. beat

157
Q

cardiac output defintion

A

vol of blood leaving one ventricle in one minute

158
Q

dissociation curve labels

A

x = po2
y = saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen

159
Q

eg high po2

A

alveoli (lungs)

160
Q

eg low po2

A

respiring tissues

161
Q

decreased affinity = (in terms of loading)

A

MORE oxygen is unloaded

162
Q

high metabolism animals haemoglobin curve

A

to the RIGHT
- lower affinity
- higher metabolic rate, so more oxygen unloaded to provide energy for respiring muscles

163
Q

describe how dissolved substances enter tissue fluid from the capillaries

A
  • diffusion of substances
  • down conc grad
  • higher hydrostatic pressure in capillary
  • walls of capillary leaky and has fenestrations
  • fluid forced out of capillary
  • small molecules leave WITH it
164
Q

need for coordination (SAN etc)

A
  • cardiac muscle myogenic; can contract and relax rhythmically even without connection to body
  • BUT atrial muscle has a higher frequency of contraction compared to ventricular
  • could cause inefficient pumping so therefore needs to be synchronised
165
Q

why do RBC’s not use the oxygen they transport (3)

A
  • oxygen bound to haemoglobin while transported so cant be used
  • lack mitochondria
    -so cant use it for aerobic respiration
166
Q

what prevents inversion of the valves after they are shut

A

chordae tendinae

167
Q

3 diff between artery and vein

A

ARTETY:
- no valves
- folded endothelium
- thicker smooth muscle + elastic fibres
- less collagen

168
Q

oncotic pressure in capillary…

A

doesn’t change

169
Q

SEMILUNAR VALVES ON GRAPH

A

top 2
open -> closed

170
Q

pressure in lymph and tissue fluid is

A

low

171
Q

describe the role of heamoglobin (4)

A
  • high affinity for o2
  • o2 binds to haemoglobin in areas of high po2
  • to form oxyhaemoglobin
  • oxygen is released where po2 is low
172
Q

Bohr shift

A
  • H+ ions react with haemoglobin (haemoglobinic acid)
  • altering its tertairy strucutre
  • reduces affintiy of Hb for oxygen
  • so more o2 released where co2 concnetratin high
173
Q

why do veins have more collagen than arteries

A

to give structural support as they carry larger volumes of blood

AS biology (14 decks)

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