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KIN 207 > Chapter 9 Book > Flashcards

Chapter 9 Book Flashcards

1
Q

We expect limb movements to arise from the interaction of ______, ______, and ______ constraints.

A
  • individual
  • environmental
  • task
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2
Q

With growth and aging, many _____ _____ constraints change:

A
  • individual structural
  • length, size, strength of limbs change with growth
  • conditions can make manipulative skills difficult as we age
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3
Q

Prehension:

A

the grasping of an object, usually with the hand or hands

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4
Q

Describe the developmental progression of grasping:

A
  • birth: no contact
  • 1 month: limited contact
  • 2 months: grasp with entire hand
  • 3 months: adjust hand position
  • 4 months: grasp with thumb on top
  • 5 months: grasp with fingers only
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5
Q

In early grasping the infant squeezes an object against the palm without the thumb providing ______.

A

opposition

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6
Q

Power grips:

A

infant uses the thumb in opposition but still holds the object against the palm

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7
Q

Precision grips:

A
  • after about 9 months

- infants hold objects between the thumb and one or more fingers

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8
Q

Infants transition from ____ to _____ grips.

A

power to precision

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9
Q

____ and _____ of objects influence the specific type of grasp used.

A
  • shape

- size

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10
Q

By ____ months of age infants reliably ____ their hand in anticipation of an object’s shape as they go to grab it.

A
  • 9 months

- shape

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11
Q

_______, ______, and _____ interact in prehension movements.

A
  • individual
  • environment
  • task
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12
Q

Because we can observe precision grip at such a young age, it’s clear that the ____ system must be mature enough at this age to control the ____ ____.

A
  • neuromotor

- precision grip

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13
Q

Grip used to obtain any particular object depends on the relationship between ____ size and ____ size.

A
  • hand

- object

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14
Q

Body scaling:

A

adapting characteristics of the task or environment to the overall body size or to the size of a body component

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15
Q

With body scaling, the same movement or action can be carried out by individuals of different sizes because….

A
  • the ratio of body size to object or dimension is the same

- body-scaled ratio

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16
Q

A relatively constant ratio of ____ size to ____ size determined when individuals chose to use 2 hands to pick up an object instead of one, no matter what the age.

A
  • hand

- object

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17
Q

The interaction of the individual’s ____ constraints with _____ and _____ constraints gives rise to either a one handed or two handed grasp.

A
  • structural
  • environmental
  • task
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18
Q

Grasping is a very _____ skill over the life span.

A

stable

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19
Q

Infants make a transition during their _____ year from ____ ____ ____ to _____ that allow them to _____ objects.

A
  • first
  • random arm movements
  • reaches
  • grasp
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20
Q

Prereaching:

A

random and reflexive arm movements

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21
Q

There is not a continuous change from _____ to reaching: it seems that infants are not learning to ____ _____ of the hand and arm with ______ of the movement.

A
  • prereaching
  • reaching
  • match vision
  • proprioception
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22
Q

Infants later rely on vision to when reaching to…

A

refine the path of the reach and configure the hand to the object

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23
Q

Learning to reach is a problem of learning to….

A

control the arm

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24
Q

To reach objects, infants learn to ____ ___ _____; they learn by ______.

A
  • control their arms

- doing

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25
Q

Infants exhibit bimanual reaching during the ____ year but cannot perform _____ activities with the 2 hands until the ____ year.

A
  • first
  • complementary
  • second
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26
Q

Between ____ months, infants become more consistent at brining the hand to the ____ rather than to other parts of the _____.

A
  • 3 and 4
  • mouth
  • face
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27
Q

At ___ months, they begin to open the mouth in anticipation of the hand’s arrival.

A

5 months

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28
Q

Infants in their first year alternate between periods when _____ reaches predominate and periods when _____ reaches predominate.

A
  • unimanual

- bimanual

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29
Q

Newborns’ random arm movements are _____.

A

asymmetrical

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30
Q

The first bilateral movements are …. and are observed at approximately….

A
  • extending and raising the arms

- 2 months

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31
Q

At approximately ___ months, infants can reach for objects with both arms.

A

4.5

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32
Q

`____ ____ can push infants to particular movement patterns.

A

changing constraints

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33
Q

After ___ months, infants start to dissociate simultaneous arm activity so they can manipulate an object cooperatively with both hands.

A

8 months

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34
Q

By ___ months, they can pull things apart.

A

12 months

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35
Q

At the end of the ___ year, infants can perform complementary activities with hands.

A

second

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36
Q

Early in the second year, infants can use ____ flexibly.

A

tools

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37
Q

_____ control is important in reaching.

A

postural

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38
Q

Infants typically sit independently by around _____ months.

A

6-7

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39
Q

Reaching improves when infants are able to maintain ____ _____.

A

postural control

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40
Q

Declining manual performance was associated with ….

A

loss of strength and upper joint impairment resulting from musculoskeletal disease

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41
Q

Compared with younger adults, the older adults could control ____ well but did not _____ their finger and wrist movements as well.

A
  • force

- coordinate

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42
Q

Loss of _____ in movement with aging is a common finding for large and fine motor movements.

A

speed

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43
Q

Interaction of the 3 constraints are as important in ___ motor skills as it is in _____ motor skills.

A
  • fine/manipulative

- large

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44
Q

Some aspects of older adults’ reaches ____ ____, putting them at a disadvantage in making _____ movements, but _______ of manipulation is stable, especially on ____ ____ tasks.

A
  • slow down
  • sequential
  • accuracy
  • well known
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45
Q

In some ____ motor skills, participants make ____ ____ movements.

A
  • complex

- rapid aiming

46
Q

Rapid aiming movements involve an _____ and _____ phase from the start of the movement to the point when ____ _____ of the arm movement is reached, then a _____ and ______ phase from peak velocity to the end of the movement.

A
  • initiation
  • acceleration
  • peak velocity
  • deceleration
  • termination
47
Q

Young adults tend to make rapid aiming movements ______; that is…

A
  • symmetrically

- acceleration and deceleration phases are equal

48
Q

Older adults and rapid aiming movements:

A
  • do not begin the movement as forcefully or travel as far in the acceleration phase
  • tend to have a longer deceleration phase to compensate (they need more adjustments in the final phase)
49
Q

Rapid aiming movements are involved in tasks requiring ….

A

monitoring and manipulation of complex displays such as in cockpits

50
Q

Age differences might not be important in…. movements, but may be critical when many _____ movements are needed in a short time.

A
  • single, simple, or self-paced arm movements

- sequential

51
Q

_____ can compensate for some slowing in rapid aiming movements for older adults.

A

practice

52
Q

Most common manipulative skill is _____.

A

catching

53
Q

Catching is relatively _____ as a developmental task.

A

difficult

54
Q

What aspect of catching makes it difficult?

A

interception

55
Q

The goal of catching is to..

A

retain possession of the object you catch

56
Q

Describe initial catching attempts:

A
  • little force absorption
  • trapping against chest
  • often turn away and close their eyes as ball arrives
  • arms rigid
57
Q

To move from novice to proficient catching, a child must:

A
  • learn to catch with the hands (absorbing the ball’s force)
  • master the ability to move to any direction to intercept the ball
  • point the finger up when catching a high ball and down when catching a low one
58
Q

Catching is specific to _____ and _____ constraints.

A
  • environmental

- task

59
Q

Why is it more difficult to identify developmental sequences for catching skills than for most locomotor or ballistic skills?

A

because the sequence is specific to the conditions under which the individual performs the skill

60
Q

Many factors are variable in catching, such as:

A
  • ball’s size
  • ball shape
  • speed
  • trajectory
  • arrival point
61
Q

As catchers improve, they:

A
  • are better able to move their bodies in response to the oncoming ball
  • adjust their hands to the anticipated location of the catch
  • catch the ball in their hands
62
Q

Catching, like striking, involves ….

A
  • anticipating where a ball can be intercepted

- the ability to complete the movements that position the hands at that location

63
Q

Children better predict the ball flight as they ____ _____, especially wen the ____ ____ is short.

A
  • get older

- viewing time (path of the ball)

64
Q

To assess catching skill, _____ and ____ constraints such as ____ _____ and ____ ____ must be tracked and replicated.

A
  • environmental
  • task
  • ball size
  • ball trajectory
65
Q

Catching can be observed from the ____ or ____.

A
  • front

- side

66
Q

It is easy to assess the product in catching tasks, as you can…

A
  • record a % of balls successfully caught

- noting the task constraints (size/type of ball used, throwing distance, trajectory of ball)

67
Q

Many manipulative tasks and interception skills involve _____.

A

anticipation

68
Q

To be successful in anticipation, performers must _____ _____ well ahead of _____ so that the body and hands can be in the proper _____ when the object _____.

A
  • initiate movements
  • interception
  • position
  • arrives
69
Q

Coincidence-anticipation tasks:

A

motor skills in which one anticipates the completion of a movement to coincide with the arrival of a moving object

70
Q

With the coincidence-anticipation approach, it is easy to vary _____ characteristics and observe the effect on _____.

A
  • task

- performance

71
Q

Variations in task characteristics influence not only the _____ of performance (a ___ or ___ vs a ____) but also the _____ or _____ _____ used in the task.

A
  • product
  • hit or catch vs a miss
  • process
  • movement pattern
72
Q

The exact pattern of improvement with advancing age depends on _____ constraints in coincidence-anticipation tasks.

A

task

73
Q

Young children are less _____ as the movement required of them gets more complex. _____ _____ is one task characteristic that influences how well children perform on interception tasks.

A
  • accurate

- response complexity

74
Q

Children’s accuracy _____ if the interception point is farther away.

A

decreases

75
Q

Young children are more successful at intercepting ____ balls.

A

large

76
Q

A high trajectory also makes interception more _____ for young children because….

A
  • difficult

- ball changes location in both horizontal and vertical directions

77
Q

Some ball ____ and ______ combinations influence young children’s performance.

A
  • colour

- background

78
Q

The ____ of the moving object affects coincidence-anticipation accuracy but not in a clear pattern.

A

speed

79
Q

A faster speed makes _____ more difficult, especially when the object’s _____ is short.

A
  • interception

- flight

80
Q

Children are inaccurate with ____ velocities because…

A
  • slow

- respond too early (might have difficulty delaying responses)

81
Q

Children can have difficulty adjusting their responses when the _____ of an object in an interception task varies greatly from on repetition to the next. This is particularly true if…

A
  • speed

- the object’s flight is short or the response required is complex

82
Q

Perception-action perspective holds that all the needed information is in the _____, and that no ____ are necessary.

A
  • environment

- calculations

83
Q

In perception-action, _____ ____ in the _____ specifies the action or movement possibilities of that environment and for specific events.

A
  • meaningful information

- environment

84
Q

Affordance:

A
  • an action or behaviour provided or permitted for an actor by the places, objects, and events in an environment
  • often related to the relative sizes of the actor and the objects
85
Q

Invariance:

A

stability in the kinematic values of a set of movements (ie keeping patterns in the environment constant)

86
Q

Optic array:

A
  • light waves reverberating from surfaces in the environment
  • the stimulus for visual perception
  • when movement of environmental objects or of the viewer in the environment occurs, the optic array expends when the movement is toward and constricts when the movement is away
87
Q

Perception-action perspective: it is possible that we use the ____ of _____ of this image on our retinas to know when ____ or ____ will occur.

A
  • rate of expansion
  • arrival
  • collision
88
Q

Constant bearing angle strategy:

A

keeping the lateral position of the ball constant with respect to the catcher

89
Q

Catchers are able to intercept balls by …

A

keeping certain relationships between themselves and the ball constant

90
Q

Children learn to catch fly balls from different experiences: a catch when one _____ with the ball was seen, but a miss when any other _____ was seen.

A
  • relationship

- relationship

91
Q

A fielder can adopt the unconscious strategy of…..

A

continuously moving to stay under the balls’ trajectory as viewed

92
Q

Changes in the path for ball can be due to:

A
  • ball spin
  • air resistance
  • wind
93
Q

With sufficient exposure, children discover the relationship between the _____ and the ______ of a ball and eventually use the relationship when they begin moving for a ball.

A
  • ratio

- catchability

94
Q

From the perception-action perspective, one role of parents, teachers, and coaches is to help children discover…

A

the various sources of perception information that constrain movement in interception tasks

95
Q

To improve anticipatory sports skills, training must be:

A
  • sport specific (environment and task specific)

- focused on the factors known to limit novice performance

96
Q

Whether the individual is a ____ or a _____ ____, manipulating _____ to help the performer identify the important information in the _____ subconsciously ______ the movements that result in success.

A
  • child
  • novice adult
  • constraints
  • environment
  • facilitating
97
Q

Factors that might change with catching in older adulthood:

A
  • quickness with which movement is initiated
  • maximum speed that could be achieved in moving to the ball
  • extent of reach if the catchability of a given ball were at the limit for an individual’s speed in moving
98
Q

Coincidence-anticipation research found that older adults are somewhat less _____ and more _____ in their performance than younger performers, and the differences are greater when the moving object moves ____ and when the older adults are _____.

A
  • accurate
  • variable
  • faster
  • sedentary
99
Q

______ of skills are important for maintaining skill.

A

repetition

100
Q

When task constraints are _____, more ____ movements or movements over distance in a _____ time are required, less older adults are successful.

A
  • larger
  • complex
  • short
101
Q

Driving is a complex _____ ____ skill involving _____.

A
  • perceptual-motor

- manipulation

102
Q

Skillful driving depends on _____ (and sometimes _____ or hearing), _____ ____, _____, ______, and _____, all under occasionally _____ conditions.

A
  • vision
  • audition
  • attentional focus
  • experience
  • speed
  • coordination
  • stressful
103
Q

Older adults vs younger adults driving:

A
  • older have more difficulty dividing their attention
  • older have more difficulty performing 2 tasks at once
  • older take longer to plan movements, slower in executing movements (esp. when speedy movement is needed)
104
Q

____-_____ factors such as _____ and ____ ____ might be more significant factors in poor performance of driving-related motor skills.

A
  • sensory cognitive
  • attention
  • decision making
105
Q

Effects of aging on airplane piloting performance:

A
  • affected more as task complexity increases
  • perceptual aspects of piloting affected
  • attention affected
  • working memory affected
  • expertise on familiar tasks offsets the effects of aging
  • highly practiced skills are well maintained
106
Q

An increased number of constraints on a task adds to its _____.

A

complexity

107
Q

When _____ constraints change with aging, the ______ of constraints can quickly cause the difficulty of _____ and _____ tasks to reach a critical point.

A
  • individual
  • interaction
  • driving
  • piloting
108
Q

_____ with a set of _____ and _____ constraints allows older adults to compensate for slowing of manipulative movements

A
  • experience
  • environmental
  • task
109
Q

Continued ____ with tasks, whether sport or driving tasks, is important for _____ skill.

A
  • practice

- maintaining

110
Q

Eventually, decrements in _____-_____ systems, as well as in ____ of movement, lead to a loss of skill.

A
  • sensory-cognitive systems

- speed

KIN 207 (27 decks)

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