Antarctica Flashcards
(23 cards)
Define a global common
Resources or areas that lie outside of political reach of any one nation state.
What are the global commons ?
-The high seas
-The atmosphere
-Antarctica
-Outer space
Physical Geography of Antarctica
-Mountainous and rocky terrain covered (98%) by glacial ice
-Divided into East Antarctica and West Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains
-Contains many peaks above 4,000 m
-Average height of 2,500m asl
Climate of Antarctica
-Average is -50 can be -89
-Mean annual windspeed of 50 mph, gales can be 200 mph
-less than 50mm yearly of precipitation
-A polar desert
What are the threats to Antarctica ?
-Fishing and whaling
-Climate change
-Mining
-Tourism
-Scientific research
-Vulnerability to environmental change
What is the convergence zone and Antarctic circumpolar current ?
-The convergence zone at around 60 degrees latitude South,this gives rise to the largest surface current in the world called the Antarctic Circumpolar current. This current effectively blocks warmer waters travelling Southwards.
-The Circumpolar Current flows in an eastward direction driven by Westerly winds.
-The zone is 32-48km wide, extending across Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans
-The sinking of cold Northward flowing waters sink beneath the slightly warmer sub-Antarctic waters,this causes upwelling of nutrients creating a highly nutrient rich habitat for Antarctic wildlife, revolving around krill.
What is the Antarctic divergence zone ?
-The interaction of two bodies of water present in Antarctic, with a convergence zone on the outside providing favourable conditions for marine life, the circumpolar current is driven by Westerly winds, Eastwards.
-Inside this a weaker current driven by Easterly polar winds, known as the eastern wind drift cause opposite flowing currents to meet in the zone of Antarctic Divergence.
How is Whaling a threat to Antarctica ?
-Feeding ground for 80% of the worlds great whales.
-Range of products included oil, whalebone, meat extract
-By 60’s whale populations had declined by 90%
-International whaling commission placed a moratorium whaling in 1986
-Underlying threat from Japan, Norway and Iceland
How is fishing a threat to Antarctica ?
-Fishing has replaced whaling
-Krill are tiny crustaceans swim in massive numbers are a key part of the food chain. Virtually everything is dependent on krill (seabirds, seals, penguins, whales)
-Krill are being caught and processed into feed for farmed fish as a nutritional supplement like krill oil.
-Source of protein and omega-3
-Recent demand in krill products has caused a dramatic increase in fishing that coincides with a long-term decline in krill biomass
-Unsustainable fishing practices may cause a krill population crash, which will have a catastrophic impact on the Antarctic ecosystem.
-By-catch
-Direct destruction of marine habitats by ships and fishing gear.
-Ships dump waste into the ocean
How is climate change a threat to Antarctica ?
-Not having a uniform impact
-The Western side is losing significant quantities of both land and sea ice, causing substantial impacts on wildlife
-Antarctic Peninsula (Western) has experienced temperature increases of nearly 3 degrees in the last 50 years (faster rate than average says IPCC)
-Southern Ocean temperatures to the West have increased by over 1 degree since 1995
-Antarctic circumpolar current is warming more rapidly than ocean as a whole
-Distribution of penguin colonies has changed
-Melting has increased colonisation of plants
-Decline in Krill
-The Easter side is undergoing sea ice expansion
-Climate change contributes to this because : Increasing Westerly winds around the Southern ocean, climate change and ozone depletion are driving the sea northwards. More rain and snow resulting from climate change. Storms are decreasing ocean salinity and raising the temp for sea ice to form. Increased melting of continental land ice creates floating ice bergs contributing to sea ice formation.
-Ocean acidification
-Due to increased CO2 concs, pH is decreasing as carbonic acids form. Can become corrosive to shells and exoskeletons.
How is the search for mineral resources a threat to Antarctica ?
-There has never been commercial mining in Antarctica as it’s banned by the Antarctic Treaty, and there are no current or known future plans to reverse this.
-The future demand of resources will put pressure on the vast mineral reserves on the continent.
-Madrid Protocol protects Antarctica from exploitation until 2048.
How is scientific research a threat to Antarctica ?
-Antarctica is not populated except from scientists at a small number in permanent research stations
-Scientist’s are well briefed about the need to care for the environment, but any activity is bound to create some degree of disturbance to environment and wildlife.
-Impacts are caused by vehicle exhausts, construction of buildings, fuel storage, runways, disposal of waste like rope and plastic.
What are the negative impacts of tourism at Antarctica ?
-Disturbance of extremely fragile ecosystem can leave an imprint for a long time (walking the same route can create paths/scars)
-Tourist season coincides with peak breeding season for most wildlife
-Over-flying by planes/helicopters causes stress to breeding colonies of penguins/birds
-Accidentally importing an invasive alien species, like insects or seeds on boots
-Oil spills from boats/ships
-The possibility of more permanent land-based tourism being developed
What is the mitigation, resilience and adaptation arguments to Antarctic tourism ?
-Antarctic tourism is well governed with strict rules set by the IAATO and a sound record for environmental concern
-Regulations are widely accepted by tour operators and tourists
-Visitors become ambassadors for Antarctica, voicing the need for preservation from development
-Seals and penguins seem to be resilient and have adapted to the presence of humans
-Scott Polar Research Instituter findings show that to date tourism has had minimal overall impact
How is tourism a threat to Antarctica ?
-Tourism is in summer months Nov-March
-Seaborne tourism is usually a cruise departing from Argentina or Chile, with opportunity to transfer to smaller boats for landing or cruising closer to shore
-Airborne tourism is flying from Australia, New Zealand or South America which involves scenic flights or sometimes landings
-Fly-cruises are those with less time, flights land on King George island and take a cruise boat
-Tourists are attracted by glacial landscapes, wildlife and historic sites
-Many go to experience the remoteness and isolation of true wilderness
-Tourist number have grown from a few hundred in 50’s to 56,000 by 2019
-Prices are becoming relatively cheaper and more tour operators joining IAATO, there are concerns that what was a niche market is becoming mainstream tourism.
What does the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) do to manage tourism ?
-No large ships of more than 500 passengers are allowed to visit
-When landing, groups must be divided into boatloads of around 20, each led by a qualified guide
-Briefing tourists on a code of behaviour when ashore, including adherence to health and safety requirements and rules about wildlife observations
-Limits on visiting sites means each site can only be visited every 3-4 days to minimise impacts and allow recovery
How is vulnerability to environmental change a threat to Antarctica ?
-The Scientific Committee on Antarctic research (SCAR) monitors the resilience and adaptation to these disturbances and also the effect of any mitigation measures
-Resilience gives an ecosystem the ability to recover from ‘shock’ events, disturbances or ongoing change whether natural or caused by human activity.
-Endemic species are usually more resilient as they evolve strategies to allow their populations to rebuild (e.g whale population increased after a ban of whaling)
-The ability of an ecosystem to return to an equilibrium status is linked to the adaptation of species to changing conditions.
-Some species will be vulnerable as their ability to adapt slower is slower and environmental change is taking place too quickly for them
-Mitigation is the intervention by humans to eliminate or reduce the impacts presented by these threats.
-This requires governance in Antarctica of a continental land mass with agreements at a global level so that mitigation efforts are effective.
What does the Antarctic Treaty do ?
-The treaty formalised that Antarctica does not ‘belong’ to any single nation
-Stipulates that Antarctica can be used exclusively for peaceful purposes (military activities banned)
-Guarantees continued freedom to conduct scientific research
-Promotes international scientific cooperation including the exchange of research plans and personnel and sharing of research results
-Prohibits nuclear explosions and disposal of radioactive waste
-Allows ships, stations and equipment to be inspected by observers to ensure compliance
-Requires parties to give advanced notice of their expeditions
-Includes a dispute settlement procedure and a review mechanism by which a treaty can be modified
What does the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) do ?
-International governance is under the control of the ATS, which is managed by annual Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM)
-ATS includes a number of other organisations like NGO’s and scientific institutions that influence the decision making progress regarding activities that take place on the continent.
-This included the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty 1991 (Madrid Protocol)
Agreements added to the scope of governance : protection of environment, conservation of plants + animals, preservation of historic sites, designation and management of protected areas, management of tourism, collection of meteorological data and hydrographic charting
What is the Madrid Protocol ?
-The ‘Environmental Protocol’ was negotiated by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and treaty members at a conference in 1991.
-Came into force in 1998
-Designates Antarctica as a ‘natural reserve, devoted to peace and science’
-Prohibits mining/mineral resource exploration (including exploration of continental shelf)
-Established a committee for environmental protection
-Requires operators to develop contingency plans to respond to environmental emergencies
-Requires that waste of all kinds be returned to the country of origin wherever possible
What is the International Whaling Commission (IWC) ?
-The global body responsible for the conservation of whales and the management of whaling activities
-Brought into action in 1946 to provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and the sustainable development of the whaling industry
What does the IWC do ?
-Provides complete protection of certain whale species
-Designates specific areas as whale sanctuaries
-Establishes limits on the numbers and size of whales which may be taken
-Prescribes open and closed seasons and areas for whaling
-Prohibits the capture of suckling calves and female whales accompanied by calves
-Requires catch reports and other statistical biological records
-In 1994, the IWC established Southern ocean whale sanctuary, an area of 50 million km2, where all commercial whaling is banned. Although Japan continued its ‘research whaling’ there.
What is the international whaling moratorium ?
-3 types of whaling : aboriginal subsistence whaling, commercial whaling, special permit whaling for scientific research
-In 1982, IWC decided there should be a suspension on commercial whaling on all stocks from 1986 onwards
-It has remained in effect despite Japan, and other pro-whaling nations over tur n it e.g. Norway and Iceland
