Approaches Flashcards
(341 cards)
1
Q
What happened in the 17th-19th century
A
Psychology would be defined as experimental philosophy
2
Q
Who was Descartes
A
French philosopher suggested mind and body are independent from each other and the mind could be an object of study on its own
3
Q
Who is Locke
A
Proposed empiricism and believed w don’t inherit knowledge or instincts so was on the nurture side of debate
4
Q
What is empiricism
A
All experience can be obtained through senses
5
Q
How did Locke believe the world could be understood
A
By investigation external events that can be observed and measured
6
Q
What did Darwin create/ believe in
A
Evolutionary theory, survival of the fittest
Many human behaviours eg social behaviour may have adaptive value
7
Q
Origins
1879
A
Wundt opens first experimental psychology lab and and it emerges as a discipline in its own right
8
Q
Origins
Who was Wundt
A
Known as father of psychology and opened first experimental psychology lab in Germany which emphasised scientific practices in psychology which was significant as it marked separation from its philosophical routes
9
Q
What and why was introspection used
A
In the 1800s there was no brain scams or computer to explore the brain so introspection used by wundt to investigate peoples consciousness
10
Q
What was introspection
A
Experiences are analysed by systematically breaking down and reporting their thoughts in terms of separate elements like sensations
11
Q
How was introspection performed
A
People presented with standardised sensory objects/events like a ticking metronome and asked to report their reactions at that moment in time
12
Q
How were researchers trained to do introspection
A
To try and make the data objective rather than subjective and then report back to Wundt
13
Q
How did Wundt attempt to be scientific
A
All introspection recorded under controlled standardised conditions ina lab with the Sam stimulus
Procedures could be replicated
14
Q
What did focus on mental processed through introspection pave the way for and how is it still used today
A
Paved way for later controlled research and study of mental mental processed eg by cognitive psychologists
Still used in areas eg therapy and studying emotional states
15
Q
What was a fail of wundtattempt to be scientific
A
Whilst procedures were replicated reports were not so method was unreliable
Experience too subjective not objective and peoples accounts can’t be confirmed
16
Q
What did Wundt realise about introspection
A
It did explain how the mind works and they’re had been greater development
Realised that ,mental processes were difficult to study and encouraged others to mind more methods and techniques
17
Q
Origins
1900s
A
Freud established the psychodynamic approach and developed the therapy, psychoanalysis
18
Q
What did Freud say about unconscious
A
Unconscious mind is driving behaviour and if problematic or challenging behaviour we ,must sort out the unconscious mind
19
Q
What other than the unconscious did Freud say was important in making us who we are
A
Early childhood experience
20
Q
What was a problem with Freud theory
A
Based off one case study
Unconscious couldn’t be studied so complete theory with no evidence
21
Q
Origins 1913
A
Watson and Skinner establish the behaviourist approach and would dominate psychology with the psychodynamic approach for the next 50 years
22
Q
What did Watson do in 1913
A
Criticised introspection’s value and scientific status as it produced qualitative data which varied and difficult to establish general principles
Proposed truly scientific psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed and measured
23
Q
What did the behaviourist approach lead to
A
The emergence of psychology as a science
24
Q
What did Watson and skinner developing the behaviourist approach lead to
A
Brought the language rigour and methods of natural sciences to psychology
Carefully controlled lab experiments and large samples
25
What is the legacy of behaviourism
Many modern psychologists continue to rely on the experimental method in their research
Scope of this research has broadened considerably
26
Origins 1950s
Rogers and Maslow develop the humanistic approach which rejected the behaviourism and psychodynamic approaches and emphasised freewill
27
What did humanistic psychologists emphasise
Importance of self determination and free will
28
What did the humanistic approach say psychology should study
Subjective experience not general laws
29
How did the humanistic approach say people should be viewed
Holistically - consider the whole life course
30
Origins
1960s
The cognitive approach emerged alongside the computer and was more scientific than Wundts work
31
What was the cognitive approach metaphor and the three stages
The mind is like a computer
Input -> processing -> output
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How was the cognitive approach developed
Well controlled lab studies to investigate wheat were thinking and inferences are made about nmental processes based on observed behaviour in the lab
33
Origins
1960s
Albert Bandura proposed social learning theory which draws attention to the role of cognitive factors in leaving providing a bridge between the cognitive approach and behaviourism
34
What did bandura assume
Learn behaviour through observing and imitating others and draws attention to the role of cognitive factors in learning
35
How were many of banduras ideas developed
Through observation of young children’s behaviour in lab studies
36
Origins
1980s onwards
The biological approach established as the dominant scientific perspective in psychology due to technological advances
37
What does the biological approach see behaviour come from
Rooted in the physiology and biology of the body and looking at biological strictest such as genes neurochemistry and the nervous system
38
What is the biological approach based on
Makes use of experimental data and researchers take advantage of technological advances for example live activity in the brain can be recorded using fMRIs and EEgs
39
Origins
End of 21st century
Cognitive neuroscience emerges as strict discipline bringing together the cognitive and biological approaches investigating how biological structures influence mental states
40
What does cognitive neuroscience investigate
How biological structures influence mental states linking parts of the brain to different mental processes
41
Psychodynamic approach
When did Freud develop this approach
Late 19th century and early 20th
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Psychodynamic approach
Who was Freud
Best known and most argued psychologist who trained as a doctor and therapist
Outrageous explanation of human development
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Psychodynamic approach
What was freud useful for
Debate about science is and isn’t
44
Psychodynamic approach
Assumptions of the unconscious mind
This is the driving force behind our behaviour and if we have problematic or challenging behaviour we must access the unconscious to sort itout
45
Psychodynamic approach
Assumption of instincts/drives
These motivate our behaviour and are driven by instinct to go through a series of stages in development of our behaviour and personality
46
Psychodynamic approach
Assumption of early childhood experiences
Pivotal in making us the person we are and argued most of our psychological development formed prior to 6yrs old
47
Psychodynamic approach
What are the three parts of the iceberg model
Conscious, preconcious and unconscious
48
Psychodynamic approach
What is the conscious mind in the iceberg model
Immediate awareness, tip of the iceberg above water which is visible to all, we can access this part of the mind
49
Psychodynamic approach
What is the preconcious mind in the iceberg model
Accessible memories just below the surface and may surface at any point into the conscious
Many of our memories reside here as they are accessible but not at the forefront of our mind
50
Psychodynamic approach
What is the unconscious mind in the iceberg model
In accessible and the thought that will nit easily or never surface so drives or instinct that motivate our behaviour
Traumatic memories remain here and may only be accessed or revealed through therapy or Freudian slips
51
What are Freudian slips
When you say something which accidentally reveals your unconscious desire and can often be sexual or violent
52
Psychodynamic approach
What are the three parts of of our personality according to Freud
The id, the ego and the superego
53
Psychodynamic approach
What is the id (short)
The pleasure principle
54
Psychodynamic approach
What is the id (long)
Instinctive aspect of personality which focuses on the self and seeking pleasure and demanding part
55
Psychodynamic approach
When does the id develop
From birth to about 18 months old
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Psychodynamic approach
What is the super ego (short)
The moralityprinciple
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Psychodynamic approach
What is the superego(long)
Like the voice of ur mother acts as an individuals conscience and helps a personality form a moral code
Made up of the conscience, given by parents and reinforced by society
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Psychodynamic approach
What is the ego (short)
The reality principle
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Psychodynamic approach
60
Psychodynamic approach
When does the superego develop
Between 3 and 6 years
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Psychodynamic approach
What is the ego (long)
Logical and rational part which responds to reality and works out how to satisfy the person and is able to delay ids drive
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Psychodynamic approach
What is egos “job”
Balance the demand of the id with the demands of superego to make rational decisions as neither id or superego should become dominant as this would adversely affect behaviour and mental health
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Psychodynamic approach how are the three elements of personality shaped
Through experiences and will and affect how someone behaviour
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Psychodynamic approach
What are defense mechanisms used for
Used unconsciously to reduce anxiety and manage the conflict between the id and the superego as a way of protecting the ego
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Psychodynamic approach
What is repression
Forcing a distressing memory or trauma from the past out of the the conscious mound where it is not accessible
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Psychodynamic approach
Example of repression
Forgetting the trauma of a family member dying
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Psychodynamic approach
How is repression helpful in reducing anxiety
If the memory is not accessible it can’t cause anxiety
68
Psychodynamic approach
What is denial
Refusing to acknowledge the reality of an unpleasant situation
69
Psychodynamic approach
Example of denial
Refusing to believe that you’ve been sacked
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Psychodynamic approach
How is denial helpful in reducing anxiety
If you’re not acknowledging the situation the anxiety caused by that situation is reduced
71
Psychodynamic approach
What is displacement
Transferring feelings from the true source of distressing/strong emotion onto a substitute target (a neutral person or object )
72
Psychodynamic approach
Displacement example
Being told of by your teacher then going home and punching the wall
73
Psychodynamic approach
How is displacement helpful in reducing anxiety
By allowing expression of that emotion
74
Psychodynamic approach
What are there psychosexual stages
Series of stages every individual progresses through brith to adulthood and each stage is marked by a different conflict the child must resolve to progress successfully to the next stage
75
Psychodynamic approach
What happens if a conflict remains unresolved according to the psychosexual stages
Lead to fixation and child becomes stuck and leads to certain behaviour as an adult
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When is the oral stage
0-1 years
77
Psychodynamic approach
What is the oral stage
Focus of pleasure in the mouth and from biting and sucking
Initially oral passive as no teeth and pleasure from sucking
Then oral aggressive so pleasure from biting and chewing
78
Psychodynamic approach
What happens if weaned from mothers milk too early or late or feeding pattern is erratic
Child fixates at oral stage
79
Psychodynamic approach
What does fixation on oral stage lead to as personality
Orally passive (non aggressive dependant passive and gullible)
Or
Orally aggressive (verbally or physically aggressive and sarcastic critical)
Overall more likely to smoke and bite fingernails
80
Psychodynamic approach
When is the anal stage
1-3 years
81
Psychodynamic approach
What is the anal stage
Focus of pleasure is the anus and pleasure haimned from withholding and expelling faeces
Child is potty trained at this age
82
Psychodynamic approach
What is anally expulsive or retentive and what are the effects
Loving to use the potty expulsive (generous emotional temper thoughtless and messy)
Strict parents about potty and anxious so hold onto faeces retentive (organised neat perfectionist
83
Psychodynamic approach
When is the phallic stage
3-5 years
84
Psychodynamic approach
What is the phallic stage
Focus of pleasure is the genitals
Child experience the Oepidus complex (boys) or electra complex (girls)
85
Psychodynamic approach
What is the Oedipus complex
Boy experiences intense sexual feeling for mother and father seen as a rival so boy wants him to leave so can have mothers attention and has castration anxiety of the dad
86
Psychodynamic approach
In the oepidus complex how does the boy combat castration anxiety
Befriends the father and acts similarly to him so the father will see him as an ally and not a rival (‘identification’) so the anxiety is resolved and oepidus conflict is resolved
87
Psychodynamic approach
What happens if there is no father figure for the oepidus complex to occur
Psychodynamic theorists argue the boy will probably grow up homosexual(no evidence for this)
88
Psychodynamic approach
What is the electra complex
When girls realise they don’t have a penis and believe the mother has removed it so develop penis envy of males . When desire not fulfilled expressed though desire for a baby
89
Psychodynamic approach
How does the electra complex relate to father
Similar to boys with their mothers and goes through identification process in the same way , father is central focus of their affection and so develop gender-role behaviour
90
Psychodynamic approach
What are the consequences of unresolved confit in the phallic stage
Phallic personality - narcissistic reckless and possibly homosexual
Fixations can also lead to a jealous and anxious adult
91
Psychodynamic approach
When is the latent stage
Approximately 6 years old
92
Psychodynamic approach
What’s the latent stage
Sexual energy is displaced and relatively calm time in development no complexes to resolve and no focus of pleasure in the body no effects on adult personality so child concentrates on being a child
93
Psychodynamic approach
When s the genital stage
Approximately 12 years old
94
Psychodynamic approach
What is the genital stage
Sexual desires become conscious along the onset of puberty and libido focused on genitals
Child becomes adult and expression of sexual attraction
95
Psychodynamic approach
What are the consequences of unresolved conflicts in the genital stage
Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
96
Psychodynamic approach
Strength -useful
Why is the psychodynamic approach useful
Used to explain a wide range of phenomena eg personality development, abnormal behaviour and gender
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Psychodynamic approach
Strength -useful
Why is it import in development of psychology
First theory to focus on psychological causes of disorders rather than evil spirits
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Psychodynamic approach
Strength -useful
Impact on people who are experiences difficulties
The more we can understand and explain m behaviour the more we can help/support/treat people/intervene
And people quality of life can therefore be improved now we have possible psychological causes
99
Psychodynamic approach
Strength -useful
Impact of development from evil sprits
Much more useful/ less stigma and distress than the evil spirits explanation of disorders
100
Psychodynamic approach
Strength -importance of child development
How does it emphasis the importance of childhood
Highlights how important childhood experience is to later development and means children are or should be nurtured and protected as childhood acts as a precursor to adulthood
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Psychodynamic approach
Strength -importance of child development
Example of understanding childhood importance
Understand that through the psychosexual stage particularly the phallic stage will impact the individual as an adult
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Psychodynamic approach
Strength -importance of child development
How is this similar to the learning approach
Acknowledges that we learn our behaviour in a certain way through conditioning and observing and imitating others and most of this learning will take place as a child
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Psychodynamic approach
Strength -importance of child development
Impact of what should be done by adults
Adults such as parents and teachers therefore need to be mindful of what children are learning
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Psychodynamic approach
Weakness - difficult to test
Why are Freud ideas difficult to test reliably
Ideas can’t be observed or measured and therefore may be viewed as unscientific as they can’t be proven (unfalsifiable)
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Psychodynamic approach
Weakness - difficult to test
Why does the psychodynamic approach lack reliability
Concept such as the id ego superego castration anxiety etc can’t be observed or measured so there existence may be questioned
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Psychodynamic approach
Weakness - difficult to test
How does this compare to the behaviourist approach
Only interested in observable and measurable behaviour in controlled lab experiments
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Psychodynamic approach
Weakness - case studies
Why are case studies unreliable
Lack reliability and cannot be generalised to the whole population as based on one person or small group of people who were psychologically abnormal
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Psychodynamic approach
Weakness - case study
Who were freuds case studies based of
Culturally specific and came from more wealthy people in Viennese society which makes generalisation difficult
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Psychodynamic approach
Weakness - case study
Example of Freud case studie
Case of Little Hans was believed to support the oepidus complex but may have just been one unique case which doesn’t apply to others
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Psychodynamic approach
Weakness - case study
What the impact of freuds interpretations
Highly subjective lack scientific rigour so can’t establish cause and effect case studies have so many uncontrolled variables so no firm conclusions can be made about the cases of behaviour
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Psychodynamic approach
Weakness - case study
Is this like pother approaches
No other approaches eg behaviourists who study large samples in highly controlled lab experiments and carefully isolate on independent variable to see effects on the dependant variable
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Behaviourism
What is the assumption about behaviour
Behaviour is learned from experience and we are born as a blank slate. There’s no genetic influence on behaviour
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Behaviourism
What type of behaviour did behaviourists only study and why
Only observable behaviour is measurable scientifically and only these behaviour should be studied (thought processes are subjective are difficult to test)
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Behaviourism
What reaserch method were used
Lab experiments on humans and animals to investigate mechanisms of behaviour acquisitions
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Behaviourism
Why us it valid to study the behaviour of animals
Share the same principles of learning (classical conditioning and operant conditioning
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Behaviourism
What is classical conditioning
One of the behaviourist principles of learning which is learning through association and was discovered by Pavlov
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Behaviourism
Who can be classically conditioned
Both humans and animals
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Behaviourism
What is assumed about learning in classical conditioning
Learning is passive and is based on reflex behaviour a that all humans and animals have
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Behaviourism
Classical conditioning route
Learning occurs when an association is made between previously neutral stimulus and a reflex response which can be positive or negative and will arise whenever the person comes into contact with the specific stimulus
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Behaviourism
When was classical conditioning illustrated in relation to phobia
By Watson and Raynor in 1920 who classically conditioned ‘Little Albert’ to become phobic of rats
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Behaviourism
What was pavlova experiment (dogs)
Whilst investigating the gastric function of dogs Pavlov noticed that dogs started to anticipate the arrival of food on hearing pavlova footsteps and were producing more saliva
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Behaviourism classical conditioning
What is neutral stimulus
Something the in environment which does not initially cause a response eg the bell in. Pavlovs dog experiment
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Behaviourism classical conditioning
What is the unconditioned stimulus
Anything that naturally has the power to produce a response in a human or animal eg food in pavlovs dog experiments
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Behaviourism classical conditioning
What is an unconditioned response
Natural reflex response to an unconditioned stimulus
Eg salivation in response to food in pavlovs dog experiment
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Behaviourism classical conditioning
What is a conditioned stimulus
Neutral stimulus become the conditioned stimulus when it acquires the ability to produce a specific response after conditioning eg the bell in pavlovs dog experiment
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Behaviourism classical conditioning
What is a conditioned response
Learnt response to something that doesn’t have the power to produce a response in a human or animal eg salivating at the bell in pavlovs dog experiment
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Behaviourism classical conditioning
What does stimulus generalisation mean
When stimuli similar to CS eg bell procure the CR eg salivation
Eg phobias
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Behaviourism classical conditioning
What does stimulus discrimination mean
CR eg salivation is only produced in response to the CS eg bell used and not to similar stimuli
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Behaviourism classical conditioning
What is extinction
When the CR eg salivation declines and disappears because the CS eg bell is repeatedly used in the absence of the UCS
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
What is operant conditioning
Learning by consequences and examines voluntary behaviour and considers how rewards and punishment shapes it
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
What are three key ways this can occur
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
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What is positive reinforcement
Behaviour is more likely to reoccur because of positive/pleasant consequences
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
What is positive reinforcement for. The behaviour of homework
Gaining stamps, better grades and approval as make doing homework more likely to happen
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
What is negative reinforcement
Behaviour is more like to reoccur to avoid negative/unpleasant consequences
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
What is negative reinforcement when the behaviour is homework
Avoiding detention and anger so would be more likely to do homework to avoid this
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
What is punishment
Behaviour is less likely to reoccur because of negative consequences
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
What is punishment if the behaviour is not doing homework
Detention and being grounded as wold make not doing homework less likely to occur
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
Who’s work was key in formulating operant conditioning
Thorndike (1898)
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
How did thorndike formulate operant conditioning
Observed how cats managed to escape a puzzle box
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
What was the ‘Law of Effect”
Generated by thorndike underpinned the principles of operant conditioning
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
What was Skinner influenced from
Thorndike work
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
What did skinner do
Work was a major force in the behaviourism movement
His work focused on lab experiments with animals and investigate how reward’s and punishment can shape behaviour
Also conducted experiments on human s
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
What was the Skinner box
Designed to observe animal responses eg rats and pigeons in contrived situations
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
How did skinners box show operant conditioning
The lever released a food pellet (positive reinforcement)
The floor was electrified (punishment)
The avoidance of the electrified floor (negative reinforcement)
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
What are types of reinforcement
Frequency and way in which reinforcement is administered can affect the likelihood of it affecting behaviour and skinner investigated how five different types of reinforcement affected how the rats learned
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What are the five types of reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement
Fixed interval
Variable interval
Fixed ratio
Variable ratio
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
What is continuous reinforcement
Every single response is reinforced and resistance to extinction is very low
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
What is fixed interval
Reinforcement is given every fixed period of time and resistance to extinction fairly low
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
What is variable interval
reinforcement given at varied on average times so interval is unpredictable
150
Behaviourism operant conditioning
What’s fixed ratio
reinforcement is given for a fixed number of responses not time related and resistance to extinction is fairly low
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
What is variable ratio
Reinforcement is given on average responses but the number varies and resistance to extinction very high
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Behaviourism
2 strengths
Scientific credibility
Real life application
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Behaviourism operant conditioning
How does behaviourism have the strength of scientific credibility
Brought language and methods of the natural into psychology, the measurement of observable behaviour, highly controlled lab settings and emphasised the importance of objectivity and replicabily
154
Behaviourism operant conditioning
How does the strength for behaviourism scientific credibility change how believable it is
It’s more believable in how it explains behaviour so people are more likely to want to use these principles to explain/ treat behaviour
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Behaviourism
How is real life application a strength
Principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real world behaviours and problems to help reduce negative behaviour and encourage positive behaviour
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Behaviourism
Which aspect of behaviourism shows the strength of real life application
Operant conditioning is the basis of token economy where tokens are given for displaying desirable behaviour and are then exchanged for rewards to try and shape behaviour
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Behaviourism
How has the strength of real life application been used in real life
Classical conditioning has used to treat phobias through systematic desensitisation which has improved the quality of life for many allowing them to now live normal lives without irrational fears
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Behaviourism
Two weaknesses
Mechanistic view of behaviour
Use of animals
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Behaviourism
What does the weakness of mechanistic view of behaviour mean
Assumes animals and humans are passive and machine like responders to their environment and aren’t interested in thoughts or cognitive processes as they’re not observable
Deterministic suggesting we have no control over our behaviour
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Behaviourism
Weakness of mechanistic behaviour assumes what and error of it
A person would do anything for a reward but ignored many other factors such as free will, morals and religious beliefs, emotion which may lead us to us not behaving and can’t explain spontaneous behaviour which we know will lead to a negative outcome
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Behaviourism
Why could the mechanistic view of behaviour be wrong as a weakness
People play a much more active role in their own leaning and conditioning may apply more to animals
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Behaviourism
How does the weakness off mechanistic view of behaviour relate to other approaches
Approaches such as the social learning theory and the cognitive approach emphasises the importance of mental processes during learning and acknowledge our thinking and decision-making
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Behaviourism
How could the use of animals be a weakness
High degree of control through the use of animals which is a strength but animals are exposed to stressful and aversive conditions and could have affected how they reacted to the experimental situation which means the behaviour being measured may not be valid
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Behaviourism
Why do some argue the use of animals is nit appropriate in deciphering human behaviour
Differences in the complexity of human and animal behaviour and many factors affect humans such as emotions and morals so to compare to animals may not e appropriate
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Behaviourism\
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Social learning theory
Who’s bandura
A learning theorist but not a behaviourists as his throw considers the thought processes that underlie our behaviour
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Social learning theory
How does bandura theory challenge skinners idea
Challenges idea that rewards and punishment will prompt orstop a behaviour automatically and argues reinforcements and punishments merely inform the individual of likely consequences
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Social learning theory
What does the SLT argue in relation to individual
It’s down to the individual as to whether their behaviour is affected by potential consequences
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Social learning theory
How does bandura believe we learn behaviour
By observing the positive and negative consequences of someone else’s behaviour vicariously
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Social learning theory
What are the people we observe referred to as
The role model
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Social learning theory
What is imitation
When an individual observes a behaviour from a role model and copies it
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Social learning theory
What is identification
When and individual is influenced by another (model) because they are similar or wish to be like them
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Social learning theory
What factors influence the choice of model by someone in identification
Gender, ethnicity, higher status or greater enterprise
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Social learning theory
What is modelling from the observers perspective
Imitating the behaviour of a role model
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Social learning theory
What is modelling from the role models perspective
Precise demonstration of s specific I behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
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Social learning theory
What’s vicarious reinforcement
Reinforcement the observer sees the model receiving but don’t receive the reward themselves and learns from it
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Social learning theory
What’s the role of the mediation all processes
The thought prior to imitation as we don’t automatically observe and imitate the behaviour of the model
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Social learning theory
What are the four mediational processes
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
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Social learning theory
What is attention in the mediating process
The extent to which we notice behaviour as for it to be imitated it has to grab pout attention
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Social learning theory
What is retention in the mediating processes
How well our behaviour is remembered as needs to be a memory for it to later to be performed, much of social learning isn’t immediate
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Social learning theory
what is reproduction in the mediating process
Thinking about whether we are physically able to carry out the behaviour
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Social learning theory
What is motivation in the mediating process
Will to perform a behaviour which is often determined whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished and will be considered by the observer
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Social learning theory
Strength -explains the initiation of certain behaviours
Example
Starting smoking which might initially have unpleasant consequences
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Social learning theory
Strength -explains the initiation of certain behaviours
How does the SLT explain the initiation of certain behaviours
Observe those around us and identify with certain role models eg parents and peers and Amy see them being rewarded eg praise from other or ‘relaxed’ feeling which makes us more likely to imitate
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Social learning theory
Strength -explains the initiation of certain behaviours
What would behaviourism predict
The initial unpleasant consequences eg coughing and bad taste would prevent us from repeating the behaviour (punishment)
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Social learning theory
Strength -explains the initiation of certain behaviours
How is this a strength
May be able to stop initiation of dangerous if know why it starts therefore improving quality of peoples life and health
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Social learning theory
Strength -application to real life
How does this allow us to protect those who are particularly vulnerable eg children
As we’re aware of how easily people can learn through observation and imitation
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Social learning theory
Strength -application to real life
Examples of protecting particularly vulnerable
Age certificates on films and video game age restriction
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Social learning theory
Strength -application to real life
Impact
As parents and teachers understand importance of modelling desirable behaviour
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Social learning theory
Strength -application to real life
Why is this a strength for SLT
As were trying to minimise the imitation of undesirable behaviour therefore improving society
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Social learning theory
Limitation- over reliance on evidence from lab studies
Where did banduras develop
Through observing young children in labs
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Social learning theory
Limitation- over reliance on evidence from lab studies
While lab studies have strengths what are the limitations
It’s contrived, may encourage demand characteristics -the child may assume they’re expected to imitate the adult role model and therefore may be invalid measure of aggression
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Social learning theory
Limitation- over reliance on evidence from lab studies
Why are the artificial setting of lab studies a limitation
Artificial setting mean its not applicable or representative of how we learn from others in real life
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Social learning theory
Limitation- over reliance on evidence from lab studies
Example of limitation of artificial settings
In bandura bobo dolls study the adult in the room was not interacting with the child which isn’t like real life
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Social learning theory
Limitation- over reliance on evidence from lab studies
Compared to the psychodynamic approach
Psychodynamic uses real life case studies high in ecological validity
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Social learning theory
Limitation- underestimates the influence of biological factors
How does biological factors explain boys being more aggressive than girls in the bobo experiment
Hormonal factors eg testosterone
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Social learning theory
Limitation- underestimates the influence of biological factors
What can’t SLT alone explain
Why there would be a gender difference and assume that both males and females would identify with role models and observe or imitate in the same way
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Social learning theory
Limitation- underestimates the influence of biological factors
Why is this a weakness
It’s an incomplete explanation of behaviour
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Humanistic psychology
What is it
Very different approach that claims human being are essentially self determining and have free will and that people are affected by external and internal influences but are active agents
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Humanistic psychology
What did it reject
Scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour which are all unique
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Humanistic psychology
What should psychology study
Subjective experience not general laws as a person centred approach
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Humanistic psychology
How should people be viewed
Holistically as no point just looking at just one aspect eg focus on childhood in therapy so should consider whole life course
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Humanistic psychology
Who’s Abraham Maslow
American psychologist who in 1940-1950 developed the hierarchy as a way for employers to get the most out of employees but has been adapted to explain needs in general forms
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Humanistic psychology
What’s Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Hierarchy in the shape of a period compromised to needs of individuals, the most basic are at the bottom and complex at the top, proposed have to fulfill bottom layers before you can achieve the ones at the top
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Humanistic psychology
Order of hierarchy of needs
Self actualisation
Esteem
Love/belonging
Safety
Physiological
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Humanistic psychology
Example of physiological aspect of hierarchy of needs
Breathing, food, water and sleep
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Humanistic psychology
Example of safety aspect of hierarchy of needs
Security of: body, employment resources, health
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Humanistic psychology
Example of love/belonging aspect of hierarchy of needs
Friendship, family, sexual intimacy
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Humanistic psychology
Example of esteem aspect of hierarchy of needs
Self esteem, confidence, achievement, respect
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Humanistic psychology
Example of self actualisation aspect of hierarchy of needs
Morality, creativity, problem solving
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Humanistic psychology
Definition of self actualisation
Fulfilment of the true potential of the self
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Humanistic psychology
What does everyone have the innate drive to achieve
Self actualisation and full potential
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Humanistic psychology
What is self actualisation described as
Ultimate feeling of well being and satisfaction
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Humanistic psychology
Is the state of self actualisation permanent
No if some lower needs don’t remain in place eg hungry or tired
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Humanistic psychology
What is focus on the self
Carl rogers suggested we have 3 selves that need to be integrated to achieve self actualisation
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Humanistic psychology
What are the three selves
Self concept
Ideal self
Real self
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Humanistic psychology
What is the self concept
The way you see yourself
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Humanistic psychology
What’s the ideal self
The self you wish to be
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Humanistic psychology
What is the real safe
Person you actually are
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Humanistic psychology
What is congruence is the 3 selves
To achieve personal growth and self actualisation roger believed there needs to be not too big gap between self concept and ideal self
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Humanistic psychology
Affects of incongruence between 3 selves
Negative feeling of self will arise, self esteem lowered and therefore self actualisation not achieved
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Humanistic psychology
What did carl rogers argue
Individuals strive to achieve their ideal selves because they are motivated towards self improvement
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Humanistic psychology
What did carl rogers think about Freud
He had dealt with the sick half of psychology so the humanistic approach concerned itself with explanations of healthy growth in individuals
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Humanistic psychology
What’s are conditions of worth
Requirement that the individual feels they need to meet to be loved (real or perceived) eg obtaining high grades
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Humanistic psychology
What’s unconditional positive regard
If a child fells conditions of worth it will mean they don’t experience this
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Humanistic psychology
Impact of conditions of worth on obtaining self actualisation
More difficult to obtains as their love and belonging needs will be compromised and self esteem lowered
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Humanistic psychology
What did riggers try to give his clients through therapy in relation to conditions of worth
Unconditional positive regard that they hadn’t received as a child
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Humanistic psychology
What is counselling psychology
Therapy developed through the humanistic approach which is very self centred and is mostly useful for milder forms of mental illness such as anxiety and low self worth
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Humanistic psychology
Aims of counselling psychology
Increase persons feelings of self worth reduce gap between self concept and ideal self and help person become a more fully functioning person as when honest can recognise barriers in congruency
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Humanistic psychology
Impact of counselling psychology
Self esteem increased and self actualisation more likely to be achieved
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Humanistic psychology
Counselling psychology development
Work transformed psychotherapy and introduced a variety of counselling
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Humanistic psychology
How does counselling psychology impac attitude
Help to improve positive attitude which means self actualisation is more attainable
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Humanistic psychology
2 strength s
Not reductionist
Counselling psychology/ client centred therapy
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Humanistic psychology
Strength -not reductionist
How is it not reductionist
Humanists reject any attempt to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components
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Humanistic psychology
Strength -not reductionist
Comparison to behaviourists
They explain human and animal learning in terms of simple stimulus response connections
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Humanistic psychology
Strength -not reductionist
Comparison to Freud
Described the whole personality as a conflict between three things id, ego , superego
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Humanistic psychology
Strength -not reductionist
Comparison to biological psychologists
Reduce behaviour to its basic physiological processes
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Humanistic psychology
Strength -not reductionist
Difference of humanistic psychologists
Advocate holism, the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person
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Humanistic psychology
Strength -not reductionist
How is this a strength
Approach may have more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful Human behaviour within its real life context
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Humanistic psychology
Strength -counselling psychology
Why is it important
Modern day psychotherapy
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Humanistic psychology
Strength -counselling psychology
What did roger referred to those in therapy as
Clients rather than patients as he saw them individuals as the expert on their own condition
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Humanistic psychology
Strength -counselling psychology
What is the client encouraged towards
The discovery of their own solutions within a warm supportive judgement free environment
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Humanistic psychology
Strength -counselling psychology
When and where is it used
In the UK and US similar to counselling skills are practiced in clinical educational and health setting helping many to have an improved quality of life
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Humanistic psychology
Strength -counselling psychology
Why has it been praised
Praised as a forward looking and effective approach that focuses on present problems rather than dwelling on the past like freuds psychoanalysis
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Humanistic psychology
2 weaknesses
Untestable concepts
Culture bias
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Humanistic psychology
Weakness- untestable concept
What concepts?
Number of vague ideas that are abstract not observable or measurable therefore difficult to test such as self actualisation and congruence which would prove to be problematic to assess under experimental conditions
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Humanistic psychology
Weakness- untestable concept
What does thus approach lack
Empirical evidence which means it lacks credibility as an explanation for behaviour therefore had limited impact within the discipline of psychology as a whole
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Humanistic psychology
Weakness- untestable concept
Compared to behaviourist approach
Has a clear set of concepts which can be used to under stance and predict behaviour
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Humanistic psychology
Weakness- culture bias
Why is there culture bias
Many of the ideas that are central to humanistic psychology such as individual freedom autonomy and personal growth would be much more readily asssociated with individualist culture in the western world eg the US
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Humanistic psychology
Weakness- culture bias
Comparison to collectivist cultures
Eg India emphasise the needs of the group community and interdependence, may not identify so easily with the idea and value of humanistic psychology so therefore may not travel well and is a product of the cultural context within which it was developed
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Humanistic psychology
Weakness- culture bias
Why is it bad
It’s therefore an incomplete explanation of behaviour if its not applicable to everyone in the world
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Humanistic psychology
Weakness- culture bias
Comparison to biological approach
Would argue that everyone’s physiology is the same regardless of where they are from
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Cognitive approach
What was it developed as a reaction against
The behaviourist stimulus-response apprach
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Cognitive approach
What do cognitive psychologists say must be studied if behaviour is to be fully understood
Events within a person
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Cognitive approach
How do cognitive psychologists believe its possible to study internal processes
In an objective way and that insight into mental processes in an objector way that insight into mental processes may be inferred
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Cognitive approach
What is it concerned with
How thinking/processes shaped our behaviour
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Cognitive approach
What does cognitive processes refer to
The way in which knowledge is gained used and retained
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Cognitive approach
What is the main concern of cognitive psychology
How information received from senses is processes by the brain and how this processing direct how we behave
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Cognitive approach
Example of mental processes studied by cognitive psychologists
-perception
-attention
-memory
-language
-thinking
-problem solving
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Cognitive approach
Relation to behaviuoiurm
This approach investigates those areas of human behaviour that were neglected by behaviourists
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Cognitive approach
What research method is used
Well controlled lab studies to investigate what we’re thinking
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Cognitive approach
What does the mind work like
A computed as it has input from our senses which it then processes and produces an output eg language/behaviour
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Cognitive approach
Why do inferences need to be made
Because we cannot see thought processes
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Cognitive approach
Definition of inferences
Going beyond the immediate evidence to make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed
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Cognitive approach
What are schemas
Cognitive representations of our ideas about a person or situation
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Cognitive approach
How are schemas formed
Through experience and allow us to predict what may happen in our world
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Cognitive approach
What does each schema contain
Stereotypes and expectations we have acquired in our lives
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Cognitive approach
Are schemas unique
Yes to each individual as their experiences are unique to them
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Cognitive approach
Who form similar schemas
People from the same cultures due to shred experience
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Cognitive approach
What is memory and why gaps
Memory is an active process and there are gaps in our memory which we fill in with stereotypes and expectations from our schemas which can produce distorted memories
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Cognitive approach
What are theoretical and computer models used for
Explaining and making inferences about mental processes
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Cognitive approach
What can models do
They mean that components can be tested individually and examined in detail and areas of brain can be identified as specific for certain tasks
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Cognitive approach
Example of a model
Multi-storey memory model by Atkinson and Shriffrin
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Cognitive approach
How do cognitive psychologists apply the idea of mind being like a computer
Through the information processing model
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Cognitive approach
When did the information model become a thing
1980s
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Cognitive approach
What are the three stages of the information processing model
Input
Procsessing
Output
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Cognitive approach
What is input in the information processing
Input com,ed from the environment via the senses and is encoded by the individual
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Cognitive approach
What is processing in the information processing model
The information once encoded can be processes, schemas affect the way information is processed
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Cognitive approach
What is output in the information processing model
The behavioural response what’s emitted following the process
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Cognitive approach
What is cognitive neuroscience
Scientific study of the influence of brain structure on mental processes such as memory attention and perception and how impairments in these regions may characterise different psychological conditions
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Cognitive approach
How are biological structures investigated in cognitive neuroscience
In the last 20 years with advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRIs and PET scans are used (to observe functioning in specific areas) alongside the experimental methods (to infer the processes taking place )
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Cognitive approach
What did Tulving et al
have shown how episodic and semantic memory may be located on opposite sides of the pre frontal cortex and the central executive is thought to be in a similar area
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Cognitive approach
What has been found about the link between the parahippocamal gyrus and ocd
Appears to play a role in processing unpleasant emotions
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Cognitive approach
What has congitinitve neuroscience made it possible to do
Work out which parts of the brain are involved in processing words
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Cognitive approach
What has the focus on cognitive neuroscience expanded to
To include the use of computer generated model designed to ‘read’ the brain which has lead to the development of mind mapping techniques know as brain finger printing possibly used to ensure eyewitnesses aren’t lying
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Cognitive approach
2 strengths
Scientific and objective methods
Real life application
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Cognitive approach
Strength-scientific and objective methods
What methods does it use
Always employed highly controlled and rigorous methods of study to allow researchers to infer cognitive processes at work
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Cognitive approach
Strength-scientific and objective methods
Why have experimental methods such as lab experiments been used
To produce reliable, objective and usually quantitative data eg when studying mental processes
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Cognitive approach
Strength-scientific and objective methods
What has cognitive neuroscience bringing biology and cognitive psychology together enabled
Using highly scientific brain imaging techniques such as fMRIs and PET scans
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Cognitive approach
Strength-scientific and objective methods
Why is this a strength
Study of the mind has therefore established a credible scientific basis
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Cognitive approach
Strength-scientific and objective methods
Comparison to psychodynamic and humanistic approach
Built their theories on untestable and unmeasurable concepts
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Cognitive approach
Strength-real life application
Technological example
AI and development of thinking machines
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Cognitive approach
Strength-real life application
Why is contribution to AI a strength
AI in hospitals can ease hospital patient flow and hello develop pharmaceutical drugs, keep and analyse patient records, this is a strength as lives can be saved
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Cognitive approach
Strength-real life application
Example for psychological treatment
CBT to treat disorders such as schizophrenia and depression as the therapist identifies and tries to challenge faulty thinking
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Cognitive approach
Strength-real life application
Why is CBT a strength
Having successful therapy to treat disorders means m[patients can alleviate their symptoms and experience a better quality of life
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Cognitive approach
Strength-real life application
Cognitive psychology in eye witness testimonies
Insight into reliability through research and police have utilised the findings of psychological research to develop the ‘cognitive interview which will increase he chances of real perpetrators being caugh and preventing innocent people putin jail
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Cognitive approach
2 weaknesses
Methodological problems
Machine reductionism
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Cognitive approach
Weakness - methodological problems
Weakness for research
Despite the use of scientific lab experiments , cognitive psychologists are only able to infer mental processes from the behaviour they observe in research as can’t directly see these processes such as memory
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Cognitive approach
Weakness - methodological problems
Example of inference
Many lab experiments have made inferences on the capacity of short term memory by recording how many items participants can immediate;y recall
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Cognitive approach
Weakness - methodological problems
What therefore damages cognitive psychology’s scientific credibility
Occasionally its too abstract and theoretical
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Cognitive approach
Weakness - methodological problems
Why would theoretical models be questioned
Theoretical models can’t be directly observed unlike biological psychology which is able to map out exact ares of the brain
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Cognitive approach
Weakness - methodological problems
Why are experimental studies of mental; processes often not credible
Often carried out using artificial stimulus eg tests of memory using word list that may not represent everyday memory experience and in real life we experience cognitive processes very differently
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Cognitive approach
Weakness - methodological problems
Why is this a weakness
Research on cognitive processes may therefore lack external validity not really representing real life
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Cognitive approach
Weakness - machine reductionism
What is machine reductionism
The cognitive approach compare the brain to c computer and although there are similarity is ignores influence of human emotion and motivation of the cognitive system and how this may affects out abolition to process information
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Cognitive approach
Weakness - machine reductionism
Example
Research has found that human memory may be affected by emotional factors eg influence of anxiety on eyewitnesses
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Cognitive approach
Weakness - machine reductionism
Why is this a weakness
Use of models may be oversimplifying complex processes and therefore and incomplete explanation of behaviour
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Cognitive approach
Weakness - machine reductionism
Comparison to holistic humanism approach
Argues that behaviour should not be broken down and simplified rather the entire person should be studied and there uniqueness celebrated not compared
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Biological approach
What does it see behaviour as being rooted in
Physiology and biology of the body
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Biological approach
What does it examines
Processes that occur and looks for how that nay effect the individual
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Biological approach
What’s the perspective
The mind lives in the brain , all thoughts feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis
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Biological approach
Belief of genetics
Behaviour is affected by genetics and there is the processes of evolution and behaviour evolves in the same way as physical characteristics through evolutionary adaptation and examining animals can inform us about our own behaviour
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Biological approach
Belief in the central nervous system
Brain is main focus when explaining behaviour and seen to be origin of how the world is seen and acted upon by an individual
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Belief in the chemistry of the body
Behaviour affected by chemistry and varying levels of chemicals in the brain and body are thought to relate to behaviour and they’re believed to influence reactions to the environment
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Biological approach
What do behavioural geneticists study
Whether behavioural characteristics eg intelligence and personality are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics eg height and eye colour
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Biological approach
What are twin studies used for
Looking at concordance rates between pairs of twins and the genetic basis of behaviour
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Biological approach
Wat are monozygotic twins
Identical twins
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Biological approach
what are dizygotic twins
Non identical twins
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Biological approach
How can twin studies show the genetic basis of behaviour
If MZ twins have a higher concordance rate than DZ twins this suggests a genetic basis as MZ twins share 100% of genes and DZ twins only share about 50%
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Biological approach
What is genotype
An individuals genetic makeup which occurs at conception
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Biological approach
What is phenotype
Product of what happens when genotype interacts with the environment
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Biological approach
Genotype and phenotype disposition
Predisposition to a behaviour of psychological characteristic may not express itself due to environment inhibiting its development
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Biological approach
What is the theory of natural selection
Any genetically determines behaviour that enhances and individuals survival and reproduction will continue in future generations as initially there’s a random change and mutation in genes
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Biological approach
What does it means in a mutation has been adaptive
If the mutation means the chance of survival or reproduction is increases it gets passed on
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Biological approach
Examples of psychological characteristics which were adaptive and therefore become part of evolutionary process
IQ and aggression
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Biological approach
How long does evolution take
Over many generations
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Biological approach
What positive results in the mutation of aggression being adaptive
-increased acquisition of resources and protection of family, increased attractiveness to mates
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Biological approach
2 strengths
Scientific methods of investigation
Real life application
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Biological approach
Strength -scientific method of investigation
What does it do in order to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour
Makes use of a range of precise and highly scientific methods such as scanning techniques like fMRIS and EEGS, twin studies and drug trials
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Biological approach
Strength -scientific method of investigation
Why is this a strength
With advances in technology its possible to accurately measure, biological in neuro processes in ways which are objective and is not open to bias, which means it’s based on reliable data, giving this approach more credibility
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Biological approach
Strength -scientific method of investigation
Comparison to other less scientific approaches such as humanistic and psychodynamic
Other approaches have untestable and abstract concept such as congruence and subjective interpretations
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Biological approach
Strength -real life application
What has increased understanding of biochemical processes in the Brain led to
The development of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental illnesses, such as depression which has revolutionised treatment for many
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Biological approach
Strength -real life application
Why is this application a strength
Because it means the suffers are able to manage their condition and live a relatively normal life rather than remain in hospital
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Biological approach
2 limitations
Deterministic view of behaviour
Over simplistic
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Biological approach
Limitation-deterministic view of behaviour
How is this approach deterministic
Biological determinism as it sees human behaviour has been governed by internal biological causes over which we have no control
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Biological approach
Limitation-deterministic view of behaviour
Implications for legal system and wider society
Law that offenders are seen as legally and morally responsible for their actions, and the discovery of the criminal gene may complicate this principle and would have serious implications with society in the legal system if it could be used as a defence in court.
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Biological approach
Limitation-deterministic view of behaviour
Why is this a limitation
People may feel pessimistic about the future, if they’re found to have a particular physiological basis for disorders or behaviour, which they feel powerless to change
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Biological approach
Limitation-deterministic view of behaviour
Comparison to humanistic approach
Humanistic approach places control very much in individuals hands and argues that they’re free to self actualise and are completely autonomous
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Biological approach
Limitation-over simplistic
Why is thus an argument,ent
Some explanations are too simplistic and ignore the complexity of human behaviour
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Biological approach
Limitation-over simplistic
Why is this biologically reductionist
They can often fail to acknowledge role of environment in behaviour
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Biological approach
Limitation-over simplistic
Why is this a limitation
Therefore may be and incomplete explanation which lowers validity
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Biological approach
Limitation-over simplistic
Comparison to humanistic approach
Humanistic argues that behaviour shouldn’t be broken down and the whole person should be studied
