Gender Flashcards

Question

Answer 1

Within psychology androgyny refers to displaying a balance of masculine and feminine traits in ones personality

Answer 2

Bem sex role inventory

Answer 3

High androgyny is associated with psychological wellbeing Individuals with both masculine and feminine traits in equal measures are Better equipped to adapt to a range of situation and context

Answer 4

Over representations of opposite sex characteristics

Answer 5

20 characteristics commonly judged as masculine 20 characteristics commonly judged as feminine 20 neutral traits 7 point rating scale Scores classified as masculine feminine androgynous undifferentiated

Answer 6

Scale is valid and reliable

Answer 7

Developed by asking 50 male and 50 female judges to rate 200 traits in terms of how desirable they were for men and women 20 highest scoping traits included for feminine and masculine

Answer 8

Piloted with 1000 students Results broadly corresponded to own description of identity so appears to measure what it intended

Answer 9

Follow up study involving a smaller sample of the same students Similar scores when tested one month later High test retest reliability

Answer 10

Questionable validity Oversimplified Problems with questionnaires

Answer 11

Data generated by American students in the 1970s about what they perceived as desirable characteristics about men and women So may lack external validity in terms of being relevant today and to people from other cultures

Answer 12

Cultural and historical bias

Answer 13

Western notions of maleness and femaleness may not be shared across all cultures and societies May be outdated and lacking temporal validity

Answer 14

Gender identity may be too complex to be reduced to a single score

Answer 15

Broader issues should be considered such as a persons interests and perception of their own abilities

Answer 16

Asking to rate themselves on questionaire relies on them having an understanding of their personality and behaviour Gender is a hypothetical construct which is open to interpretation Scoring system is subjective people interpretation of 7 may differ Also social desirability bias response bias etc

Answer 17

Short sections of DNA that determine the characteristics of a living thing

Answer 18

46 arranged in 23 pairs

Answer 19

Biological sex

Answer 20

XX females XYmales

Answer 21

Sperm fertilises the egg cell

Answer 22

Y chromosome carries this gene which causes testes to develop in an XY embryo Produces androgens (male sex hormones) Androgens cause the embryo to become a male Without them embryo develops as a female

Answer 23

Chromosomes

Answer 24

Chemical messengers circulated in blood that controls and regulates the activity in certain cells or organs

Answer 25

Hormones act upon the brain development and cause development of reproductive organs

Answer 26

Burst of hormonal activity trigger the development of secondary sexual characteristics

Answer 27

Produce many of same hormones but in different concentrations

Answer 28

Testosterone

Answer 29

Females produce about 10% of the amount of that found in males

Answer 30

As a foetus begins early in pregnancy involves internal and external genitalia as well as the brain and behaviour

Answer 31

Sex glands Tenses in males Ovaries in females

Answer 32

In xy individuals genetic info on Y chromosome causes the gonads to become testes by week 8 of gestation produce hormones particularly testosterone

Answer 33

Become ovaries which don’t produce significant amounts of hormones prenatally

Answer 34

Sry gene on Y chromosome

Answer 35

Xy foetuses have higher levels than xx forest uses particularly between 8 and 24 weeks of gestation Between then and birth gonadal hormone levels are low in both sexes Surge of testicular hormones after birth males testosterone ponce again higher in boys than in girls for baout first 6 months

Answer 36

Testosterone causes development of the m,ale sex hormones but also acts on th hypothalamus without tthe brain will develop as a female type Associated with masculination of brain eg areas linked to spatial skills Associated with male type behaviour such as competitiveness and aggressiveness

Answer 37

Hormone which promotes the development and maintenance of female characteristics of the body and later regulates menstruation

Answer 38

Primarily female small amount in males

Answer 39

Also no side physical development of breasts causes some women to experience heightened eotionaility irritability and lapses in self control that can lead to to anti social behaviour during menstrual cycle

Answer 40

Pre menstrual syndrome when effects become diagnosable

Answer 41

Extreme cases pms used as defence in criminality However some researchers dispute the existence of pms as a viable medical category

Answer 42

Associated with onset of menopause Role in feminising the brain promoting neural interconnections for a more distributed female brain Female type behaviour such as sensitivity and cooperation

Answer 43

In and outside the brain by both males and females to control key aspects of the reproductive system

Answer 44

Greater action in females as combines with oestrogen to enhance each other effects

Answer 45

During labour causes contraction of the uterus After childbirth to make mothers feel in love with babies and stimulate lactation

Answer 46

Rescues stress hormone cortisol and facilitates bonding

Answer 47

Fact that men has less of hormone has fuelled popular stereotypes that men are less interested in intimacy and closeness However evidence suggests oxytocin produced roughly equal amounts during kissing and sex

Answer 48

Evidence to support role of chromosome and hormones

Answer 49

David Reimer

Answer 50

Twins males born and one undergoes failed circumcision so penis removed Decides to be raised as a girl eg given girly dolls and girl clothes As teenager rejected female identity and started living as a male Then told about what happened Committed suicide

Answer 51

In the end gender was sex

Answer 52

Use of animals over emphasis on nature Oversimplifies complex concept

Answer 53

Extent to which results can be generalised to humans

Answer 54

Physiology especially in brain functioning Rats and mice

Answer 55

Social and cultural infleunces

Answer 56

Limits extent to which meaningful generalisation can be made

Answer 57

If gender identity if purely down to biology we would expect to find many more differenmc3s in male and female behaviour than there actually are

Answer 58

Significantly more differences in behaviour within sexes than between them

Answer 59

Alternative explantions eg slt would point to the importance of social context in learning gender identity Influence of social norms would explain cross cultural differences in gender role

Answer 60

Biological accounts that reduce gender to levels of chromosomes and hormones have been accused of ignoring alternative explanations for gender development

Answer 61

Cognitive Psychodynamic

Answer 62

Changing thought processes underpinning gender development not adequately explained by biological

Answer 63

Points to importance of childhood experiences such as interactions within family

Answer 64

XX female XY male

Answer 65

Distinct pattern of physical and psychological symptoms

Answer 66

Klinefelters Turner

Answer 67

XXY Extra X chromosome

Answer 68

Older parents

Answer 69

1 in 500-1000

Answer 70

Believes that two thirds of people who have it are not aware of it Often accidentally diagnosed

Answer 71

Error in cell division causes egg or sperm to have an extra copy of X chromosome

Answer 72

Testosterone supplements

Answer 73

Reduced body hair Long gangly limbs Undeveloped gentials small testes Low muscularity Rounding of body contour Low fertility Clumsiness and problems with coordinating Other medical complications

Answer 74

Often linked to poorly developed language skills and reading ability Tend to be passive, shy and lack interest in sexual activity Many tend not to respond well to stressful situations Increased risk of anxiety disorders and depression May often exhibit problems with memory, problem solving and attention

Answer 75

XO Absence of one X chromosome

Answer 76

Born to elder women Rare to have second child with ts

Answer 77

Usually consists of administering growth hormone as well as oestrogen and progesterone

Answer 78

Lymphoedema Short stature short webbed neck Broad chest Organ abnormalities Heart condition high blood pressure vision and hearing problems Ovaries fail to develop so no menstrual cycle Sterile Don’t develop breast at puberty

Answer 79

Higher than average reading ability Lower than normal performance on spatial, visual memory and mathematical tasks Tend to be socially immature Have trouble relating to their peers Experience difficulty ‘fitting in’/social adjustment due to physical appearance

Answer 80

Contribution to nature nurture debate in gender development Practical application

Answer 81

Psychological and behavioural differences between the two group See aspects of the behavioural development and behavior are under influence of genetics and chromosomes

Answer 82

People with Turner’s syndrome tend to have higher verbal ability and talk more that typical girls

Answer 83

Seems logical to infer these have a biological basis and are a direct result of abnormal chromosomal structure Nature influences seem to have a powerful effect on psychology and behaviour

Answer 84

Continued research into atypical chromosomal patterns is likely to lead to earlier nd more accurate diagnosis of these syndromes and development of therapies

Answer 85

Improve quality and duration of life

Answer 86

Treating the stunted physical growth in turners with growth hormones and treating klinefelters with testosterone helping those with the conditions develop a less passive nature

Answer 87

Because there may be also more positive p outcomes in the future for these individuals Therefore increased awareness of these conditions may have practical application

Answer 88

Environmental explanations Unusual sample

Answer 89

Leaping to the conclusion that nature is responsible for

Answer 90

It is not causal between chromosomal abnormalities and differences in behaviour

Answer 91

Environmental and social influence

Answer 92

Higher criminality may be due to lack of maturity

Answer 93

May suffer psychologically through not being able to gave children

Answer 94

When drawing conclusions from such an unusual sample of people

Answer 95

From atypical individuals to wider population

Answer 96

The fact they loook differently means they are likely to be treated differently to their peers Thus may muddy the eater when trying to assess the relative contribution of nature and nurture to behavioural and psychological differences

Answer 97

Through psychosexual stages

Answer 98

Oral stage Anal stage Phallic stage Latency stage Genital stage

Answer 99

Phallic stage

Answer 100

No concept of gender identity Freud describe prephallic children as bisexual in sense that they are neither masculine or feminine

Answer 101

Oedipus for boys Electra for girls

Answer 102

Boys develop passionate desire for their mother and want top possess her See father as rival , jealousy Afraid father will discover desire for mother and punish them by removing their prize possession in castration anxiety

Answer 103

Boy give up love for his mother and begin to identify with father

Answer 104

Young girls develop a passionate desire for father and see them selves and mother as being in competition Experience penis envy and believe mother castrated them

Answer 105

By identifying with their mother and father realising she can’t have a penis substitute desire with desire for children

Answer 106

Toward end of phallic savage when children resolve conflict by identifying to same sex parent Adopt attoitudes and values of same sex parent

Answer 107

Children take on board gender identity of same sex parent

Answer 108

Hans was 5 years old with a fear of being bitten by a horse Hans’ fear appeared to have stemmed from an incident when he had seen a horse collapse and die in the street. Freud’s interpretation was that Hans’ fear of being bitten represented his fear of castration (by his father because of Hans’ love for his mother). Freud suggested that Hans had transferred his fear of his father onto horses via the unconscious defence mechanism of displacement.

Answer 109

Research doesnt support Oedipus complex Inadequate acccount of female development Lack of scientific rigour Disagreement over gender identity

Answer 110

That little hans doesnt support the Oedipus complex

Answer 111

For being subjectively interpreted to fit idea of the Oedipus complex as the boys father was an avid supporter of Freud and therefore is biased

Answer 112

Only one individual who showed it

Answer 113

That sons of very harsh fathers should go on to develop a stronger sense of gender identity as higher levels of anxiety should produce stronger identifications

Answer 114

Not supported by evidence and reverse seems to be true boys with more liberal fathers tend to be more secure in their masculine identity

Answer 115

Theory of gender development is mainly male oriented probable a product of the time period in which it was constructed

Answer 116

Extensively about the Oedipus complex Carl jung

Answer 117

Women were a mystery to him

Answer 118

Idea that gender development was founded on desire to be liked by men

Answer 119

Lack of rigour in high methods Many of his concepts he refers to in his accounts about gender identity are untestable due to thei unconscious nature eg Oedipus complex and penis envy

Answer 120

Other explantions of gender that are based on objective verifiable evidence from lab studies such as biological approach

Answer 121

Cannot be empirically tested and proven Less believable as a explantion Key ideas cannot be falsified

Answer 122

That gender identity is for me at the end of the phallic stage at age six when a child identifies with the same apex parent Prior to this child is bisexual

Answer 123

No further development

Answer 124

Other explantions of gender development eg kohlbergs theory which suggests the child’s concept of gender develops gradually across a sequence of storages as child’s cognitive capacity increases

Answer 125

Kohlbergs theory

Answer 126

Idea that a child’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age

Answer 127

Gender identity Gender stability Gender constancy

Answer 128

Around age 2

Answer 129

Child can correctly identify themselves as boy or girl Approx 3 years old most children can identity others as male or female and can correctly respond to which one of these is like you

Answer 130

Tend to not stretch past simple labelling Not aware that sex is permanent

Answer 131

Happens around age 4

Answer 132

Children understand they will always be the same gender but cannot apply same logic to others

Answer 133

External changes in appearance eg may deprive man with long hair as a woman Believe change sex if engage in activities more associated with opposite gender

Answer 134

Approx 6 or 7 years

Answer 135

Children recognise gender remains constant and consistent across time and situations Understanding is applied to other people gender as well as own No longer fooled by changes in outward experience

Answer 136

Begin to seek out gender appropriate role models to identify with and imitate Start o behave gender appropriate ways

Answer 137

Solid al learning theory

Answer 138

Research support Holistic

Answer 139

Slayy and Frey

Answer 140

Children were presented with split screen images of males and females performing the same tasks

Answer 141

Younger children spent roughly the same amount of time watching both sexes Children in the gender constancy stage however spent more time looking at the model who was the same sex as them

Answer 142

Kohlberg was correct as children who have acquired constancy will actively seek gender appropriate models

Answer 143

Combines social learning and biological developmental factors

Answer 144

Looks at person as a whole rather than oversimplifying complex concept down to one factor

Answer 145

Lacks depth Methodological issues

Answer 146

Mainly descriptive

Answer 147

Process of gender development does not really exp;lain how development occurs

Answer 148

Lacks depth of explanation

Answer 149

Using interviews with children sometimes as young as 2 or 3

Answer 150

Questions were tailored towards particular age group but Bert young children lack the vocabulary to express their understanding

Answer 151

Children may have relatively complex ideas about gender but don’t possess the verbal ability to articulate these

Answer 152

What they express may not truly represent their understanding

Answer 153

Influence of the environment in shaping gender development including significant others that the child comes in contact with eg parents peers teachers as well as wider influences of culture media

Answer 154

Direct Indirect (vicarious)

Answer 155

Demonstrating behaviour that is gender appropriate

Answer 156

Way in which boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender appropriate behaviour

Answer 157

Through differential reinforcement A child is more likely to imitate a behaviour that has been reinforced

Answer 158

If consequences of another persona behaviour are favourable that behjabvour is more likely to be imitated by q child

Answer 159

Process where a child attaches himself or herself to a person who has similaortyes to them or the person is someone they want to be like

Answer 160

Person possesses qualities that the child sees as rewarding may be part of child’s immediate environment eg peers bu may be present within media Specifically same sex

Answer 161

Modelling is precise demonstration of a behaviour that may be imitated by an observer Eg modelling stereotypical female or male behaviour

Answer 162

Replicating observed behaviour

Answer 163

Four cognitive processes that are central to the learning of gender behaviour Attention retention motivation motor reproduction

Answer 164

Girls and boys learn dissimilar gender roles as parents react to them differently When children imitate gender-appropriate behaviour they are reinforced with praise and affection Parents give boys and girls different toys, speak to and handle them differently, decorate their bedrooms differently Fathers seem to reinforce sex-typed behaviours more than mothers (especially in sons SLT perceives same-sex models as more influential –more likely to be imitated Children gradually take on parents gender schemas

Answer 165

Peers (individuals of equal status) act as role models for gender-role stereotypes Children are more likely to imitate same-sex models Children soon display preferences for same-gender playmates and divide themselves into mainly same-gender groups Peers reinforce gender stereotypes – praise gender-appropriate behaviour and ridicule non-appropriate behaviour May be intolerant of cross-gender behaviour (e.g. boys playing with girls) Observational learning takes place, especially after child’s gender identity and gender-role stereotypes have developed More powerful influence than parents and older others Once children have internalised gender appropriate behaviours, they are no longer dependent on external rewards and punishments Children self-direct their behaviour to satisfy their internalised standards – feel pride when gender-role consistent behaviour is achieved

Answer 166

Television, magazines, social media and pop music for e.g. all influence the acquisition, shaping and maintenance of gender roles Males are more represented in most TV programmes (including children’s programmes Males are portrayed in a wider range and higher-status roles than females Both sexes are portrayed in gender-stereotypical ways Gender roles often apparent in pop groups e.g. female singers, male musicians Media influences provide children with a constant source of information of gender behaviours to imitate Those who ‘consume’ the most media develop stronger and more extreme perceptions of gender roles

Answer 167

Studying cultural influences on gender roles allows psychologists to assess the extent to which gender is a biological or a social construct If gender was biological in nature, different cultural influences people experience around the world would not influence gender If cultural influences result in differences in gender roles between cultures, this suggests gender is socially constructed

Answer 168

Explains changing gender roles in western society

Answer 169

Now less of a clear cut distinction between masculine and feminine in our society today compared to 1950s

Answer 170

People’s basic biology

Answer 171

Such a shift is better explained by special learning theory shift in social expectation and cuktural norms resulting in new forms of acceptable gender behaviour

Answer 172

Cannot explain gender differences between same sex siblings Not a developmental theory Comparison with the biological approach

Answer 173

Two brothers can be raised the same way but one Turn out to be more masculine than the other

Answer 174

Would suggest a more biological influence on gender development

Answer 175

That slt doesn’t provide an adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age

Answer 176

Children may struggle to perform behaviours if they are not physically or intellectually capable

Answer 177

Modelling of gender appropriate behaviour can occur at nay age from birth onwards This may not be the case

Answer 178

Infleunces of genes and hormones only considers the role of environment in gender development

Answer 179

David reimer showed how it was not possible to override chromosomal influence and raise a biological male as a girl

Answer 180

Modern researchers are more likely to accept the biosocial theory of gender – there are innate biological differences between boys and girls that are reinforced through social interactions and cultural expectations

Answer 181

Mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing they are developed from experience

Answer 182

Cognitive developmental theory that argues children’s understanding of gender increases with age

Answer 183

Approach sees children as learning appropriate patterns of behaviour by observation

Answer 184

Children develop their understanding of gender by actively structuring their own learning

Answer 185

Generalised representation of everything we know in relation to gender and gender appropriate behaviour

Answer 186

They will search the environment for info that encourages development of gender schema Act as a magnet for new gender distinctive information

Answer 187

Stereotypes which provide a framework that directs experience and child’s understanding of itself such as girls play with dolls

Answer 188

Child has quiet a fixed and stereotypical ideas about what is appropriate for its gender Understanding of what people like them Do is more elaborated Children likely to misremember or disregard information that doesn’t fit their their existing schema

Answer 189

Children tends to have a much better under of the schemas that are appropriate to own gender so will pay more attention to informations relevant to their gender identity

Answer 190

Opposite sex that children pay less attention to

Answer 191

Begin to develop elaborate schemas for both genders not just own In group identity also serves to boost child’s level of self esteem

Answer 192

Understood that rules are just social conventions Gender role schemas are more flexible Teenagers abandon automatic assumptions that what their own gender does is preferable

Answer 193

Rigidity of gender beliefs Campbell

Answer 194

Fact that young children tend to hold very fixed and rigid gender attitudes

Answer 195

Information that conflicts with existing schema such a s a woman working on building site would be discounted or ignored in favour of information conforming in group schema

Answer 196

In formation relevant to their own experience and display strong in group bias in terms f how they process information

Answer 197

Theory can explain many aspects of young children’s thinking about gender

Answer 198

Even the youngest infants between 3 and 18 months has a preference for watching same sex babies By 9 months boys showed increasing tendency to pay attention to boys toys

Answer 199

Young children pay more attention to their same sex group

Answer 200

Supports idea that gender schemas are formed early on

Answer 201

Overemphasis on the role of the individual gender development Gender schema theory is reductionist

Answer 202

Importance of schemas and other cognitive factors in determining behaviour

Answer 203

Like kohlbergs theory may be insufficient attention paid to role of social factors such as parental infleunces rewards and punishments received for gendered behaviour

Answer 204

Theory doesn’t really explain why gender schemas develop

Answer 205

Offers plausible compromise between social learning and cognitive developmental theories but neglects biological factors

Answer 206

Assumes all gender oriented behaviour is created through cognive means

Answer 207

Mismatch between biological sex and gender identity

Answer 208

Some people experience stresss and discomfort from experience of gender Dysphoria

Answer 209

Brain sex theory Genetic factors Hormonal explanation

Answer 210

Suggest gender Dysphoria has basis in brain Bed nucleus of the stria terminal is structure involved in emotional processes and is larger in men than women Found to be female sized in transgender females Leads to suggestion that p[ople with gender syphoria have a bst the size pf the gender they identify with

Answer 211

Evidence for heritable component to gender Dysphoria Gene variants of the androgen receptor which infleunces the action of testosterone and is involved in the masculinisation of the brain

Answer 212

Gene profiling performed to try indentify genetic material common to those exhibiting the condition Other research methods have utilised twin studies to assess the heritability of the brain

Answer 213

Sees role for hormonal imbalances during foetal growth in womb and later in childhood development

Answer 214

Process of releases of male hormones from testes in womb and releases after birth must occur at right time for masculinisation If not through a disorder in the mothers endocrine system maternal stress or illness that interferes with hormonal levels m gender Dysphoria may arise Similar process may occur in females with oestrogen

Answer 215

Psychoanalytic Openrant conditioning and slt

Answer 216

Social relationships within the family as the cause of gender Dysphoria

Answer 217

By child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established Child fantasises of a symbiotic fusion with his mother to relieve the anxiety Danger of separation is removed Consequence is that child becomes the mother and therefore adopts a female gender identity

Answer 218

Learned via socialisation processes eg operant conditoning Individuals are reinforced for exhibiting cross gender behaviour

Answer 219

Many young children ‘experiment’ with gender role behaviour e.g. infant boys wearing dresses and jewellery or girls being ‘dad’ when playing ‘house’ Parents of individuals experiencing gender dysphoria may have reinforced the condition by encouraging and complimenting their children for such behaviour May also have reinforced themselves – felt good about what they were doing Such family reactions could contribute to the conflict between anatomical sex and acquired gender identity Social learning may also play a part with the disorder being learned by observation and imitation of individuals modelling cross-gender behaviour (this is even more likely now due to access to social media) Individuals may lack stereotypically male/female role models

Answer 220

Extension of gender schema theory Emphasised individual differences in gender identity Emphasises two pathways opf gender development

Answer 221

Dual pathways theory

Answer 222

Firth pathway Second personal pathway

Answer 223

Acknowledges development of gender schema which directors gender appropriate attitudes and behaviour

Answer 224

Describes how child’s gender attitudes are affected by his/her activity Individual’s personal interests may become more dominant than the gender identity These in turn influence the gender schema E.g. boy who finds himself playing with dolls may come to believe playing with dolls is for boys and girls Events like this leads to development of non sex-typed schema In most people this may lead to androgynous behaviour and more flexible attitude to gender In a small minority, it may lead to the formation of opposite gender identity

Answer 225

Socially sensitive Biologically reductionist

Answer 226

Classifying gender dysphoria as a recognised disorder may remove feelings it is their own fault

Answer 227

Such labels as a disorder risks stigmatising those who are subject to it characterising them as ill rather than merely different Label often not helpful

Answer 228

Concepts of gender become more fluid or f;edible there may be less need to talk about typical and atypical gender identity

Answer 229

Little evidence to suggest a totally biological explanation Oversimplifies complex subject Explanations reduced to genetic neuroanatomical and or hormaonal factors Other contrubtiary factors may be obscured or ignored Other interacting psychological factors likely to be involved too

Answer 230

More research needed especially to identify what types of psychological factors are required to elicit an influence Interactionist cop,binational of several levels of explantion may be especially relevant to case of gender dysphoria as extremely complex and unlikely to be explained by a single influence

Answer 231

Doesn’t provide an aqueate account of gender dysphoria in females as theory only applied to male transgender individuals

Answer 232

Conducted research which suggests gender dysphoria is more likely to be associated with the absence of a father than the fear from separation from the mother Assumption that it is caused by separation anxiety in childhood is very difficult to test Occurs at an unconscious level so indicnals themselves not even aware of what’s occurring

Answer 233

Descriptive rather than explanatory

Answer 234

Why a child might become interested in activities that are not consistent with their own sex Hope such activities bring the development of non sex types schema No in for about causes

Gender Flashcards

(269 cards)