Research Methods

Question 1

What does replicability mean

Answer 1

repeating research under identical conditions to check validity
Same or similar results must be obtained to be reliable

Question 2

What does objectivity mean

Answer 2

Observations made through sensory experience, independent of beliefs, opinions and biased viewpoint of researchers
-to lesson possibility of unconscious bias and reduce subjectivity
-peer reviews can act asana gate keeper to stop this and replication can help check validity

Question 3

What is falsifiability

Answer 3

-A scientific theory has to be empirically testable to see if its false
- one example of falsification is enough to render a theory untrue

Question 4

How can falsifiability be determined

Answer 4

Replication

Question 5

7 main scientific factors of a method to be scientific

Answer 5

-replicable
-objective
-controlled variable
-reliable
-cause and effect can be established
-quantitative data
-valid
-standardised
-falsifiable

Question 6

What does reliability mean

Answer 6

The extent to which a test or measurement produces consistent results

Question 7

What does validity mean

Answer 7

The extent to which results accurately measure what they are supposed to Meade

Question 8

What is qualitative data

Answer 8

Expressed in words rather than numbers and may take the form of written description of thoughts feeling and opinions of participants

Question 9

Advantages of qualitative data

Answer 9

-More richness of detail in a much broader scope
-Participant has more license to develop their thought feeling and opinions on a given subject so greater external validity
-researcher has more meaningful; insight into participants work view

Question 10

Disadvantages to qualitative data

Answer 10

-difficult to analyse
-hard to be summarised statistically
-patterns and comparisons within data hard to identify
-concussion often rely on subjective interpretations of the researcher which may be subject to bias

Question 11

What is quantitative data

Answer 11

Data represented numerical data and collection technique often gather numerical data in the form of individual scores

Question 12

Quantitative data advantages

Answer 12

-easier to analyse
-patterns and comparisons within data easily drawn
-more objective and less open to bias
-analysed statistically
-easily converted into graphs and charts etc

Question 13

Quantitative data disadvantage

Answer 13

-narrower scope with less meaning
-participant less chance to develop thoughts feelings and opinions so less external validity
-researcher doesn’t gain meaningful insight and may fail to represent a real life

Question 14

Which is better:qualitative or quantitative data

Answer 14

-depends on purpose and aims of research
-researchers collecting quantitative data may also interview participants
-qualitative can sometimes be converted to numerical data

Question 15

What is primary data

Answer 15

Original data has been collected specifically for the purpose of the investigation by the researcher ans arrives first hand from participants themselves

Question 16

What can primary data also be referred to as

Answer 16

Field research

Question 17

How is primary data gathered

Answer 17

Conducting and experiment, questionnaire, interview or observations

Question 18

Primary data advantages

Answer 18

-authentic data obtained from participants for the purpose of the particular investigation so specifically targets info required

Question 19

primary data disadvantages

Answer 19

-requires time and effort
-can be expensive

Question 20

What is secondary data

Answer 20

Data collected by singing other than the person who is conducting that research and already exists before starting research

Question 21

What is secondary data often. Referred to as

Answer 21

Desk research

Question 22

Where might secondary data be located

Answer 22

Journal articles, books, website, statistical information held by the government, population records

Question 23

What is meta analysis

Answer 23

Research method that uses secondary data and refers to process in which the data from a large number of studies involving the same research questions and methods are combines

Question 24

Positive of meta analysis

Answer 24

Allows to view data with much more confidence and results can be generalised across much larger populations

Question 25

Negative of meta analysis

Answer 25

Maybe prone to bias as researcher may not select all relevant studies choosing to leave out those with non significant results

Question 26

Secondary advantages

Answer 26

-may be inexpensive, easily accessed and minimal effort

Question 27

Secondary disadvantages

Answer 27

-may be substantial variation in quality and accuracy of secondary data -data may be out dated or incomplete -data may not quite match the researchers needs/objective -dont know how scientific/Ethical

Question 28

What are the 6 research methods

Answer 28

-experiments -observation -self report -correlation -content analysis -case studies

Question 29

What is an aim

Answer 29

General statement of what the researcher intends to investigate/ the purpose of study as we have to start with an initial idea then narrow the focus of our research to produce an aim

Question 30

What do you start and exam answer with if asked to write an aim

Answer 30

To investigate

Question 31

What is a hypothesis

Answer 31

Clear precise testable state,ent that states the relationship between the variable to be investigated and is written in the present or future tense

Question 32

What are the 4 different types of hypotheses

Answer 32

-Alternative/experimental -directional -non directional -null

Question 33

What is a directional (one tailed) hypothesis

Answer 33

Clear sort of difference anticipated between two conditions or two groups of people and includ words eg more less higher lower faster

Question 34

What is a non directional (two tailed ) hypothesis

Answer 34

Simply states there will be a difference between conditions or groups of people but the nature of the diffference is not specified

Question 35

What is a null hypothesis

Answer 35

States there will be no significant difference between the two groups

Question 36

What is and alternative hypothesis

Answer 36

When experiment is done results analysed to decide if the alternative hypothesis should be accepted or the null one

Question 37

Which type of hypothesis should be used ?

Answer 37

Directional tend to be used when the findings of previous research studies suggest a particular outcome Non directional when there’s no previous research of findings of earlier studies are contradictory

Question 38

Experiments Why are variables used

Answer 38

Determine if changes in on thing results in changes to another

Question 39

Experiments What is an independent variable

Answer 39

Aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researchers or changes naturally

Question 40

Experiments What is a dependent variable

Answer 40

Variable that measured by the researcher and recorded

Question 41

What three levels of measurement can quantitative data be put into

Answer 41

Nominal Ordinal Interval

Question 42

What is nominal data

Answer 42

Data represented in the form of categories eg males and females, school dinner or packed lunch

Question 43

What id ordinal data

Answer 43

Data can be put in order eg scale of 1-10 and doesn’t have equal intervals between each unit

Question 44

Limitations of ordinal data

Answer 44

Based on subjective option not objective so lacks precision As the data is ‘unsafe, raw scores are converted into ranks when doing statistical testing

Question 45

What is interval data

Answer 45

Based on a numerical scale that includes units of equal, precisely defined size eg time temp and weight Most precise and sophisticated form of data

Question 46

For nominal level of measurement which is the measure of central tendency

Answer 46

Mode

Question 47

For ordinal level of measurement which is the measure of central tendency

Answer 47

Median

Question 48

For interval level of measurement which is the measure of central tendency

Answer 48

Mean

Question 49

For nominal level of measurement which is the measure of dispersion

Answer 49

Range and standard deviation cannot be calculated so n/a

Question 50

For ordinal level of measurement which is the measure of dispersion

Answer 50

Range

Question 51

For interval level of measurement which is the measure of dispersion

Answer 51

Standard deviation

Question 52

Why isn’t it appropriate to use the mean or standard deviation for ordinal data

Answer 52

Intervals between units of measurement are not equal of size

Question 53

Experimental method What are conditions

Answer 53

Different testing groups which reflect what the IV is

Question 54

Experimental method What is operationalisation of variables

Answer 54

Clearly defining variables into measurable factors

Question 55

Experimental method Why is operationalisation of factors necessary

Answer 55

Many things psychologists are interested in are difficult to define therefore the psychologist needs to ensure the variables being investigated are clear and measurable

Question 56

Experimental method When are variables operationalised

Answer 56

When writing the hypothesis

Question 57

Experimental method why do we need to control variables

Answer 57

Be sure that the IV has caused the change in the DV so any other variable that might potentially interfere should be controlled or removed

Question 58

Experimental method What are additional unwanted variables then need to be controlled called

Answer 58

Extraneous variables

Question 59

Experimental method How do you limit the affect of extrenuous variables

Answer 59

Need to be identified before the study and minimised

Question 60

Experimental method what are confounding variables

Answer 60

Extrenuous variables that have systematically changed the IV Affects relationship between IV and DV

Question 61

Experimental method What are demand characteristics

Answer 61

Cues picked up by the participants from the researcher or research situation about what’s going on and possible reveal the purpose of the investigation which may lead to a change in behaviour

Question 62

Experimental method Types of demand characteristics

Answer 62

Please you effect Screw you effect

Question 63

Experimental method Impact of demand characteristics

Answer 63

Behaviour no longer natural

Question 64

Experimental method What are investigator effects

Answer 64

Effect of investigator behaviour (conscious or unconscious) that impact on research outcome

Question 65

Experimental method Example of investigator effect

Answer 65

Design of study , selection of participants, interactions with participants eg smiling or words said

Question 66

Experimental method What’s randomisation

Answer 66

Use of chance wherever possible to control for the effects of biased when deigning materials and allocating participants

Question 67

Experimental method What’s standardisation

Answer 67

All participants should be subject to the same environment information and experience

Question 68

What is experimental design/ participants design

Answer 68

Way in which participants are used in experiments and how participants are assigned certain conditions which can be done in three ways

Question 69

What are the three experimental/participant design

Answer 69

Repeated measures Independent groups Marched paired

Question 70

Experimental method What is repeated measures

Answer 70

Participants experience both conditions and results are compared

Question 71

Experimental method Strength of repeated measures

Answer 71

Participant variable not an issue as same participants in both conditions Less participants so more economical

Question 72

Experimental method Weakenesses of repeated measures

Answer 72

Order effects are a problem but can be counterbalanced Demand characteristics may be a problem as participants guess the aim More than one test needed

Question 73

Experimental method What is independent groups

Answer 73

Participants take part in one condition then results compared

Question 74

Experimental method Weaknesses of independent groups

Answer 74

Participant variables Less economical

Question 75

Experimental method Strengths of independent groups

Answer 75

No order effects as participant only take parent once Participants less likely to guess aim Only ne test needed

Question 76

Experimental method What is matched pairs

Answer 76

Two separate groups of participants and are paired on key characteristics eg matched on IQ so it tries to control participant variables

Question 77

Experimental method Weakness of matched pairs

Answer 77

Still participant variables as can’t match exactly Matching is time consuming and expensive Less economical

Question 78

Experimental method Strength is matched pair

Answer 78

No order effects as participant only in one condition Less demand characteristics as didnt guess aim of the study as only in one conditions

Question 79

Experimental method What’s counterbalancing

Answer 79

Attempt to minimise the effects of order effects in a related measures design and attempts to balance out order effects but cant get rid of them

Question 80

Experimental method How is counter balancing used

Answer 80

Half the participant do condition A then B and Half the participants do B. Then A

Question 81

Experimental method What’s random allocation

Answer 81

Used in independent groups to avoid bias from the researcher and participants who may choose to be in particular conditions to attempt to evenly distributed characteristics across the conditions of the experiment random techniques

Question 82

Experimental method How is random allocation used

Answer 82

Participants randomly allocated to conditions using random techniques to address the problem of participants variables in the two conditions

Question 83

Experimental method What are the four types of experiments

Answer 83

Laboratory experiments, field experiments, natural experiments and Quasi experiments

Question 84

Experimental method Types of experiments What are laboratory experiments

Answer 84

Highly controlled environments eg a classroom or lab Experimenter manipulates IV

Question 85

Experimental method Types of experiments Strengths of lab experiments

Answer 85

-high control over extraneous variables -more confidence that IV has affected the DV -replication is possible because of control

Question 86

Experimental method Types of experiments Weaknesses of lab experiments

Answer 86

-lacks generalisability to other setting so low external validity -lacks generalisability to real life so low ecological validity -participants more likely to act unnaturally so demand characteristics -tasks complete by participants don’t represent real life

Question 87

Experimental method Types of experiments What is field experiments

Answer 87

IV manipulated by experimenter but setting more natural everyday one

Question 88

Experimental method Types of experiments Strengths of field experiments

Answer 88

-higher mundane realism than lab experiments because environment is more natural -may produce behaviour that is more valid and authentic -participants may be unaware they’re being studied so high external validity

Question 89

Experimental method Types of experiments Weaknesses of field experiments

Answer 89

-less control over extraneous variables -cause and effect between the IV and DV more difficult to establish -precise replication not possible -ethical issues informed consent from participants -possible invasion of privacy

Question 90

Experimental method Types of experiments What are natural experiments

Answer 90

-researcher take advantage of pre existing independent variable -variable would’ve changed even if experimenter not there -setting not always natural eg could be a lab

Question 91

Experimental method Types of experiments Strengths of natural experiments

Answer 91

-provides opportunities for research that may not otherwise be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons -often high external validity as they study real life issues and problems as they happen

Question 92

Experimental method Types of experiments Weaknesses of natural experiments

Answer 92

-naturally occurring event may only happen reducing the opportunities for research -generalising findings to other similar situations will be limited -participants may not have been randomly allocated to groups so less sure IV affected the DV

Question 93

Experimental method Types of experiments What are quasi experiments

Answer 93

IV based on existing difference between people eg gender age or having medical condition and it’s not manipulated it already exists

Question 94

Experimental method Types of experiments Strengths of quasi experiments

Answer 94

Often carried out under controlled conditions therefore share the same strengths of a lab experiment

Question 95

Experimental method Types of experiments Weaknesses of quasi experiments

Answer 95

Cannot randomly allocate participants they’re already in this conditions -may be confounding variable

Question 96

Experimental method What is a single blind procedure

Answer 96

Participants sometimes not be told the aim of the study and may also not be told what condition of th experiment they’re in

Question 97

Experimental method What’s the point of single blind procedure

Answer 97

Attempt to control the effects of demand characteristics

Question 98

Experimental method What’s a double blind procedure

Answer 98

Neither participants nor the researcher is aware of there aims of the investigation and often a third party conducts the investigation

Question 99

Experimental method What is the control condition is the drug trial example

Answer 99

Group that receive the placebo

Question 100

Experimental method What’s the experimental conditions on the drug trial example

Answer 100

The groups that receives the real drug

Question 101

Experimental method What’s are pilot studies

Answer 101

Small scale retrial run of actual investigation may involve handful of participants to check it runs smoothly

Question 102

Experimental method Why are pilot studies used

Answer 102

Check the experiment runs smoothly and researcher can identify potential issues and modify the design or procedure to save time and money in the long run

Question 103

Sampling What is the population

Answer 103

Large group of individuals that a particular researcher may be interested in

Question 104

Sampling What is the sample

Answer 104

Selection of participants taken from the target population being studied and intended to be representative of that population

Question 105

Sampling Why is it tricky to get a representation sample

Answer 105

Target population will be so diverse Most samples contain some bias

Question 106

Sampling Why is a representative sample good

Answer 106

Allows generalisation of findings to be possible

Question 107

Sampling What are the five types

Answer 107

Random Systematic Stratified Opportunity Volunteer

Question 108

Sampling What is random sampling

Answer 108

When all members of target population have an equal chance of being selected

Question 109

Sampling How is random sampling done

Answer 109

Complete list of all members of the target population obtained And then assigned a random number Then put in a random number generator or picked out of a hat

Question 110

Sampling Strengths 0f random sampling

Answer 110

Free from researcher bias (no influence over who’s Chloe not just choosing those who support the hypothesis )

Question 111

Sampling Weaknesses of random sampling

Answer 111

Difficult and time consuming Sample may still be unrepresentative eg all females Selected participants may refuse to take part

Question 112

Sampling What happens in systematic sampling

Answer 112

Sampling frame produced Every nth person is selected Interval determined randomly to avoid bias

Question 113

Sampling Strengths of systematic sampling

Answer 113

Free from researcher bias Usually fairly representative

Question 114

Sampling Weaknesses of systematic sampling

Answer 114

Complete list of target population may be hard to obtain Selected participants may refuse to take part Still possible to get unrepresentative sample

Question 115

Sampling What is stratified sampling

Answer 115

Composition f the sample reflects the proportions of the strata within the target population

Question 116

Sampling How is stratified sampling done

Answer 116

First identify different strata that make up the population Find proportions of different strata Participants that make up each strata selected through random sampling

Question 117

Sampling Strengths of stratified sampling

Answer 117

Free from researcher bias Produced representative sample -designed to accurately represent composition of population Generalisation of findings possible

Question 118

Sampling Weaknesses of stratified sampling

Answer 118

Difficult and time consuming Selected participants may refuse to take part Identified strata cannot reflect all ways people are different

Question 119

Sampling How is opportunity sampling done

Answer 119

Anyone who is available and willing at the time is asked by the researcher

Question 120

Sampling Strengths of opportunity sampling

Answer 120

Convenient-saves researcher time and effort Less costly than other techniques

Question 121

Sampling Weaknesses of opportunity sampling

Answer 121

Suffers from bias Unrepresentative of the target population as it’s drawn from a very specific area and finding can’t be generalised to population Researcher bias as may avoid certain participants

Question 122

Sampling What’s volunteer sampling

Answer 122

Participants select themselves to be part of sample (self-selecting)

Question 123

Sampling Strengths of volunteer sampling

Answer 123

Easy- requires ,minimal input from the researcher and less time consuming than other techniques

Question 124

Sampling Weaknesses of volunteer sampling

Answer 124

Volunteer bias May attract a certain profile of persons eg helpful and keen Might affect generalisability

Question 125

Case study What are cast studies

Answer 125

In-depth detailed investigations of one individual, small group, institution or event usually in the real world

Question 126

Case studies What are case studies in nature (issues and debate)

Answer 126

Idiographic and individualistic

Question 127

Case studies What do they usually involve

Answer 127

Biographical details, behavioural information, experiences of interest, often analysis of unusual individuals or events but may also concentrate on typical cases

Question 128

Case studies What are they exp;anations of

Answer 128

Explanations of behaviour outlines in a subjective way

Question 129

Case studies What type of date is usually produced

Answer 129

Qualitative

Question 130

Case studies How can data be gathered for case studies

Answer 130

Interviews, observations, questionnaires,experimental testing to asses what a person can or can’t do

Question 131

Case studies Often what type of studies

Answer 131

Longitudinal

Question 132

Case studies All advantages

Answer 132

Rich detail – case studies provide great depth and understanding about individuals and acknowledge human diversity Give us insight on unusual forms of behavior and ‘normal’ functioning Case studies are about real people. Information relates to a real person – not just an average gathered from many Case studies can be longitudinal and so changes in experience can be observed over time, rather than just a ‘snapshot’ of experience provided by other methods Case studies usually involve several methods (observation, interviews, etc.), enabling checks for consistency/reliability/validity whereas other methods just use a single method of data collection Allows psychologists to study unique behaviours or experiences that couldn’t have been studied any other way Allows sensitive areas to be explored e.g. effects of sexual abuse Useful for theory contradiction – just one case study can contradict a theory

Question 133

Case studies advantages Detail as an advantage

Answer 133

Rich detail as case studies provide great depth and understanding about individuals and acknowledge human diversity

Question 134

Case studies advantages What do they give insight

Answer 134

Unusual forms of behaviour and normal functioning

Question 135

Case studies advantages Ecological validity

Answer 135

About real people so information relates to a real person and not just average from many Longitudinal and so changes in experience can be observed over time rather than just a snap shot of experience frovided by other methods

Question 136

Case studies advantages Methods to collect data

Answer 136

Often involves several methods a eg observation and interviews enabling checks for consistency/reliability/validity compared to over methods which only use a single method of collection

Question 137

Case studies advantages What else are they useful for

Answer 137

Theory contradiction as just on case study can contradict a theory

Question 138

Case studies disadvantages

Answer 138

Not representative – no two cases are alike, results cannot be generalised to others Because it is very difficult to replicate a case study, they lack reliability As case studies are unique situations, it’s very difficult to generalize to other situations Researcher bias – researchers conducting case studies may be biased in their interpretations Reliance on memory – the information gathered is often based on retrospective data (often depend upon participants having full and accurate memories) so may not be accurate

Question 139

Case studies disadvantages Why isn’t it representative

Answer 139

No two cases are alike so results can’t be generalised to other

Question 140

Case studies disadvantages Why do they lack reliability

Answer 140

Because its very difficult to replicate a case study as they’re all unique

Question 141

Case studies disadvantages Researcher bias

Answer 141

Researchers conducting case studies may be biased in their interpretations

Question 142

Case studies disadvantages Reliance on memory

Answer 142

Information gathered is often based on retrospective date often dependent upon participants having full and accurate memories so may not be representative

Question 143

Measures of central tendency and dispersion What are measures of central tendency

Answer 143

Averages which give us information about the most typical values in a set of data Mean mode and median

Question 144

Measures of central tendency and dispersion What are measures of dispersion

Answer 144

Tell us about the spread of scores and how they differ and vary form one another Range and standard deviation

Question 145

Measures of central tendency and dispersion How do you find the mean

Answer 145

Add up all values and divide by number of values

Question 146

Measures of central tendency and dispersion Strengths of the mean

Answer 146

Most sensitive of the measures of central tendency as it includes all the scores in the data set More representative of the data as a whole

Question 147

Measures of central tendency and dispersion Weaknesses of mean

Answer 147

Easily distorted by extreme values so the mean may to be representative in this case Can’t be used with ordinal Mean may not be one of the actual scores in the data set

Question 148

Measures of central tendency and dispersion What the median

Answer 148

Middle value in a data set when scores arranged from lowest to highest

Question 149

Measures of central tendency and dispersion Strengths of median

Answer 149

Extreme scores don’t affect the middle value Easy to calculate Can be used with ordinal data

Question 150

Measures of central tendency and dispersion Weaknesses of median

Answer 150

Less sensitive than the mean as not all scores are included in the final calculation

Question 151

Measures of central tendency and dispersion What’s the mode

Answer 151

Most frequently occurring value in a data set Can be two modes or no modes

Question 152

Measures of central tendency and dispersion Strengths of mode

Answer 152

Easy to calculate Less prone to distortion by extreme values May be only method you can use eg ordinal

Question 153

Measures of central tendency and dispersion Weaknesses of mode

Answer 153

Very crude measure Doesn’t use all scores May not e a mode May not be representative of data as a whole

Question 154

Measures of central tendency and dispersion What is the range

Answer 154

Simple calculation of spread of values Take lowest value from the highest value

Question 155

Measures of central tendency and dispersion Strength of the range

Answer 155

Easy to calculate

Question 156

Measures of central tendency and dispersion Weaknesses of range

Answer 156

Only takes into accounts two most extreme values therefore unrepresentative of data set as a whole Doesn’t show whether data is clustered or spreads evenly around the mean

Question 157

Measures of central tendency and dispersion What is standard deviation

Answer 157

Single values that tells us how far scored deviate from the mean The larger, the greater spread of score

Question 158

Measures of central tendency and dispersion When talking about a particular condition within an experiment what does a large standard deviation mean

Answer 158

Not all participants were affected in the same way by the IV

Question 159

Measures of central tendency and dispersion What does a low standard deviation mean within an experiment

Answer 159

Implies participants responded in a fairly similar way

Question 160

Measures of central tendency and dispersion Strength of standard deviation

Answer 160

Much more précis measure of dispersion than the range as it includes all values

Question 161

Measures of central tendency and dispersion Weakness of standard deviation

Answer 161

More complicated to calculate Can be distorted by extreme values

Question 162

Measures of central tendency and dispersion What measures can be used in nominal level of measurement

Answer 162

Mode No dispersion

Question 163

Measures of central tendency and dispersion What measures can be used in ordinal level of measurement

Answer 163

Median and mode Range

Question 164

Measures of central tendency and dispersion What measures can be used in interval level of measurement

Answer 164

Mean median and mode Range and standard deviation

Question 165

Measures of central tendency and dispersion Why is it not appropriate to use the mean or standard deviation for ordinal data

Answer 165

Intervals between the units of measurement are not of equal size

Question 166

Measures of central tendency and dispersion How do you answer the 4 mark question for mean and standard deviation

Answer 166

General statement about mean (include IV and DV) (1) Evidence about mean and conditions specific (1) General statement about standard deviation (include IV and DV) (1) Evidence about standard deviation and condition specific (1)

Question 167

Correlation What is correlation not

Answer 167

Repeated measure’s independent groups or matched pairs

Question 168

Correlation What does each participant do

Answer 168

Provide data for two measures

Question 169

Correlationwhat are covariables

Answer 169

Correlations haver two variables and both are measured

Question 170

Correlation What do they not show

Answer 170

Cause and effect they’re looking for a relationship between the two variables

Question 171

Correlation What is a correlation

Answer 171

Relationship between two variables measured on a scale and where both measures come from one individual

Question 172

Correlation What is a positive correlation

Answer 172

Where as one variable increases so does the other

Question 173

Correlation Positive correlation coefficient

Answer 173

+1 would be the perfect positive correlation so the closer to this number you get shows a positive correlation

Question 174

Correlation What is a considered a strong positive correlation

Answer 174

0.7 ands above

Question 175

Correlation What is a negative correlation

Answer 175

Where’s as pone variable increases the other decreases

Question 176

Correlation Negative correlation coefficient

Answer 176

-1 would be perfect negative correlation so the closer you get to this number you get shows a negative correlation

Question 177

Correlation What’s condsidered a strong negative correlation

Answer 177

-0.7

Question 178

Correlation What is no correlation

Answer 178

Where there’s no relationship between the two variable

Question 179

Correlation What is correlational data presented on

Answer 179

Scatter graph

Question 180

Correlation How are correlations hypotheses different to experiments

Answer 180

No IV and DV Hypothesis still has to clearly state the expected relationship between the covariables and must be clearly operationalised

Question 181

Correlation How do you write a non directional correlation all hypothesis

Answer 181

There will be a correlation between … and … (operationalised)

Question 182

Correlation How do you write a directional correlational hypothesis

Answer 182

There will be a positive/negative correlation between … and … (operationalised )

Question 183

Correlation How do you write a null correlational hypothesis

Answer 183

There will be no correlation between … and … (operationalised

Question 184

Correlation What are the strengths of a correlational design

Answer 184

Little manipulation of variables Show unexpected relationships Study something which can’t be changed deliberately Show statistical relationships

Question 185

Correlation Why is there being little manipulation of variables a strength of this design

Answer 185

Measures often taken in existing situations with few controls needed and design is quite straight forward compared with other methods

Question 186

Correlation Why is being able to show unexpected relationships a strength of this’d design

Answer 186

Can prompt future research in new areas

Question 187

Correlation Why is being able to study something which can’t be deliberately changed a strength

Answer 187

Allow to study something that an experimenter can’t change as it would be unethical or something which happens naturally which can’t be done by other designs

Question 188

Correlation Why is showing a statistical relationships between variables a strength

Answer 188

It’s objective reliable and scientific and if correlation isn’t significant can rule out a causal relationship

Question 189

Correlation What are the weaknesses of a correlational design

Answer 189

Don’t prove cause and effect Tend to lack validity

Question 190

Correlation Why is correlations not proving a cause and effect between variables a weakness

Answer 190

Only proves covariables may be related. Variable a may cause variable b or vice versa and may be a third variable having an effect as extraneous variables are not controlled

Question 191

Correlation Why is correlational studies lacking validity a weakness

Answer 191

Whenever a score is manufactured there’s always a chance its not meaningful

Question 192

Distributions What are distributions

Answer 192

Visual representations of psychological data used to interpret data and how the data is distributed

Question 193

Distributions Where should the mode lways be

Answer 193

At the highest point

Question 194

Distributions What is the idea of a normal distribution

Answer 194

For a given attributes such as IQ most scores will be on or around the mean

Question 195

Distributions What shape should a normal distribution form

Answer 195

A bell shaped curve

Question 196

Distributions What should all count the same point on a normal distribution

Answer 196

Mean mode and median

Question 197

Distributions What is true of the tails of the curve on a normal distribution

Answer 197

Extend outwards and never touch the x axis

Question 198

Distributions What are skewed distributions

Answer 198

Data doesn’t form a balanced symmetrical pattern ands appear to lean to one side or another

Question 199

Distributions What is a positive skew

Answer 199

Most of distribution is concentrated towards the left of the graph resulting in a long tail on the right

Question 200

Distributions Where’s the mean mode and median on a positive skew

Answer 200

Mode remains at highest point of the peak Median in the middle Mean is on the rright

Question 201

Distributions How to remember a positive skew

Answer 201

From standing at the origins as though a whale is swimming towards you and its a positive thing

Question 202

Distributions What is a negative skew

Answer 202

Most of the distributions towards the right of the graph and results in along tail of anomalous data on the left

Question 203

Distributions Where is the mean median and mode on a negative skew

Answer 203

Mode remains at highest point of the peak Median always in the middle Mean is on the left

Question 204

Distributions How to remember negative skew

Answer 204

Standing from the origin as if the whale is swimming away which is a bad thing

Question 205

Ethics What are ethics

Answer 205

Issues around hat is seen as right and wrong and acceptable with regards to the actions of others or or societies Values and beliefs

Question 206

Ethics When can ethical issues arise

Answer 206

When there’s a conflict between the rights of participants and the researchers need to gain valuable and meaningful findings

Question 207

Ethics What is the BPS code of ethics

Answer 207

Reseachers have professional duty which ensures all participants are treated with respect and consideration Cost benefit approach taken by the ethics committees

Question 208

Ethics Types of ethical issues

Answer 208

Informed consent Deception Protection from harm Right to withdraw Privacy and confidentiality

Question 209

Ethics What is informed consent

Answer 209

Investigators should give participants sufficient details of an investigation that they can make a considered choice to whether they wish to participate

Question 210

Ethics When is parental consent needed

Answer 210

Children under the age of 16

Question 211

Ethics Who can’t informed consent be gained from

Answer 211

Those under the influence of alcohol or drugs or mentally unfit

Question 212

Ethics How is informed consent dealt with

Answer 212

Participants should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all relevant information that might affect the decision to participate

Question 213

Ethics What are the three alternative ways of getting consent and why is it used

Answer 213

Presumptive consent Prior general consent Retrospective consent Researchers think consent and participant knowing aim could spoil the research

Question 214

Ethics What is presumptive consent

Answer 214

Ask similar group of people if the study is acceptable if they agree consent of original particiapants is presumed

Question 215

Ethics What’s prior general consent

Answer 215

Participant give their permission to take part in a number of studied including one that will involve deception

Question 216

Ethics What’s retrospective consent

Answer 216

Participants asked for consent after taking part in the study

Question 217

Ethics What’s deception

Answer 217

Withholding of information or misleading participant and it’s unacceptable if participants are likely to object or shown unease once debriefed

Question 218

Ethics What should be a voided in relation to deception

Answer 218

Intentionally deceiving over the purpose and general nature of investigations Shouldn’t deliberately be misled without scientific or medical justification

Question 219

Ethics How should deception be dealt with if participants can’t know the aim

Answer 219

In an ethical manner

Question 220

Ethics What is protection from harm

Answer 220

As a result of their involvement participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would normally physical or psychological

Question 221

Ethics How is protection from harm and deception dealt with

Answer 221

Debriefing where participant should be made of the true aim of study, what their data will be used for and given right to withdraw data Reassure behaviour was typical And may need to refer to a counsellor

Question 222

Ethics What is right to withdraw

Answer 222

Participants have right to leave the study at any point without giving reason and without consequence

Question 223

Ethics How is right to withdraw dealt with

Answer 223

Participants should be informed throughout they can withdraw and if they do even though frustrating they can Afterwards have right to withdraw their data

Question 224

Ethics What is right of privacy

Answer 224

Participant have right to control information about themselves and if invaded confidentiality should be protected

Question 225

Ethics What’s confidentiality

Answer 225

Right to have any personal data protected

Question 226

Ethics Observational research in privacy and confidentiality

Answer 226

Observation only made in public spaced where people might expect to be observed by stranger

Question 227

Ethics How is confidentiality dealt with

Answer 227

Personal data must be protected Numbers used instead of names in papers In briefing and debriefing participant reminded data protected

Question 228

Ethics What is briefing and debriefing

Answer 228

When participants arrive give briefing to provide informed consent after they will be debriefed

Question 229

Ethics What is a brief

Answer 229

Instructions and consent before research starts

Question 230

Ethics Checklist for writing a brief

Answer 230

Who you are Area of research Who’s conducting research What procedure is Where research will happen How long it’ll take If recorded Data stored securely Will remain anonymous Can withdraw More detail Chance to ask questions Appropriate ending (name signature and date)

Question 231

Ethics Checklist for writing a debrief

Answer 231

Thank participant Make aware of true aims Know rational as why it’s important Give any extra detail that wasn’t know before Where data will be used Remind of withdrawal Behaviour was typical May require counselling Refer to any professionals or service Ask for any questions Name and email

Question 232

Observations What is the main way of obtaining data

Answer 232

Watching

Question 233

Observations What does observations allow to do

Answer 233

Psychologists to see what people do without asking them and to observe behaviour in a natural or controlled setting

Question 234

Observations Why is the absence of variables a positive

Answer 234

Can study more complex interactions

Question 235

Observations What is the crossover with experiments

Answer 235

Observation sometimes used within an experiment to assss the DV

Question 236

Observations What is the cross over with case studies

Answer 236

Can involve observation that is not the main way of collecting data

Question 237

Observations What are the types of observations

Answer 237

Naturalistic or controlled Participant or non-participant Covert or overt

Question 238

Observations What are naturalistic observations

Answer 238

Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur Aspects of environment free to vary Interactions take place as they normally would

Question 239

Observations Advantages of naturalistic observations

Answer 239

High external validity so findings can be generalised to everyday life Behaviour more natural and unaffected by anxiety or need to impress

Question 240

Observations Disadvantages of naturalistic observations

Answer 240

Uncontrolled extraneous variables so difficult to judge any pattern of behaviour Replication harder to achieve so less reliable Behaviour not likely to be repeated

Question 241

Observations What are controlled observations

Answer 241

Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment Some control over variables might be manipulate to observe affects Control over extraneous variables

Question 242

Observations Advantages of controlled observations

Answer 242

Replication is easier as extraneous variables can be controlled

Question 243

Observations Disadvantages of controlled observations

Answer 243

Reduced naturalness of behaviour being studied Artificial setting so less external validity Findings not as readily applied to real life settings

Question 244

Observations What are cover observations

Answer 244

Participants behaviour watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent and are unaware of it Must be public setting to be ethical

Question 245

Observations Advantages of covert observations

Answer 245

Behaviour should reman natural -reduced participant reactivity Increased validity as usual behaviour

Question 246

Observations Disadvantages of covert observations

Answer 246

Ethical issues around informed consent privacy and deception and right to withdraw

Question 247

Observations What are overt observations

Answer 247

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent

Question 248

Observations Advantages of overt observations

Answer 248

No ethical issues around informed consent deception privacy or right to withdraw

Question 249

Observations Disadvantages of overt observations

Answer 249

Know your being watched may alter behaviour so affects validity Demand characteristics as participants guess what expecteing to see Participant reactivity

Question 250

Observations What are participant observation

Answer 250

Researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he or she is watching May be hidden in order to join a group

Question 251

Observations Advantages of participant observations

Answer 251

Likely to provide special insights int the behaviour from inside Increased validity as no strange observer affecting behaviour

Question 252

Observations Disadvantages of participant observations

Answer 252

May affect observers objectivity as line between being researcher and participant May lie on memory as no time to take notes Interferes with group behaviour Replication difficult so validity of data cannot be checked

Question 253

Observations Whatare nonparticipant observations

Answer 253

Researcher remains outside of group their watching and recording

Question 254

Observations Advantage of nonparticipant observations

Answer 254

More objective Doesn’t interfere with behaviour being observed

Question 255

Observations Disadvantages of non participant observations

Answer 255

Cant provide info of how people feel Data less likely to be rich Data less valid May lose valuable insight as far away from participants

Question 256

Observations What are the ways to record data

Answer 256

Unstructured Structured

Question 257

Observations What does researcher do for unstructured observation

Answer 257

Write down everything they see

Question 258

Observations What does unstructured observation produce for data

Answer 258

Accounts of data that are rich in detail

Question 259

Observations What is unstructured observation appropriate for

Answer 259

Small scale studies with only a few participants

Question 260

Observations What is done in structured observation

Answer 260

Target behaviour simplified into a behavioural checklist which clearly defined behaviour in a predetermined way

Question 261

Observations What should the behavioural categories be in a behavioural checklist in a structured observation

Answer 261

Observable and measurable

Question 262

Observations What way of recording data observations has use smapling for behaviour

Answer 262

structured observations

Question 263

Observations what are the two types of sampling for behaviour

Answer 263

Event or time

Question 264

Observations What is event sampling

Answer 264

Observer decides on specific events relevant to the investigation and recorde the behaviours every single tie they occur throughout the observation

Question 265

Observations What is time sampling

Answer 265

Recording behaviour within a pre established time frame

Question 266

Observations What is interobserver reliability

Answer 266

Degree of agreement between individual observers who rate code or assess the same thing

Question 267

Observations Why is it recommended that observers don’t conduct studies alone

Answer 267

May miss important details and only notice events that confirm hypothesis which creates bias

Question 268

Observations Strength of having two observers for the data

Answer 268

Makes data recording more objective and unbiased

Question 269

Observations What must two observers be for interobserver reliability

Answer 269

Consistent in judgement, recorded the same or very similar, must be trained

Question 270

Observations What is the main way to maintain to interobserver reliability

Answer 270

Have atleast two observers

Question 271

Observations What are the ways to maintain interobserver reliability

Answer 271

-two observers -observers familiarise themselves with behavioural categories -observe same behaviour in a pilot study but independently -correlate data to see how similar it is - revisit behavioural categories and amend

Question 272

Observations Strengths of structured observation

Answer 272

-use of behavioural categories makes recording data easier and more systematic -behavioural categories make data collection objective -data produced likely to be numerical so easier to analyse

Question 273

Observations Weaknesses of structural observations

Answer 273

-if not enough categories to incorporate all target behaviours then behaviour may not be recorded -if categories ambiguous or overlap data may be inaccurate

Question 274

Observations Strength of unstructured observations

Answer 274

Benefit from richness and depth of detail

Question 275

Observations Weakness if unstructured observation

Answer 275

-produces qualitative data hard to analyse and record -greater risk of observer bias -difficult to record alll behaviour so might be misses

Question 276

Observations Strength of event sampling

Answer 276

Useful when behaviour happens quite infrequently

Question 277

Observations Weakness of event sampling

Answer 277

If behaviour too complex may be overlooked important details

Question 278

Observations Strength of time sampling

Answer 278

Effective in reducing number of observations needed to be made

Question 279

Observations Weaknesses of time sampling

Answer 279

Target behaviour may be missed if occurs between chosen time frame Might be unrepresentative of observation as a whole

Question 280

Graphs and tables What are summary tables

Answer 280

When raw scores are converted into descriptive statistics in a table

Question 281

Graphs and tables When use a bar chart

Answer 281

Show data in form of categories to be compared to discrete data

Question 282

Graphs and tables For a bar chart what’s on the x axis

Answer 282

Categories

Question 283

Graphs and tables How should the bars be on a bar chart

Answer 283

Same width separated by spaces to illustrate the data isn’t continuous

Question 284

Graphs and tables What goes on y axis for a bar chart

Answer 284

The dependant variable

Question 285

Graphs and tables When should a histogram be used

Answer 285

With continuous data

Question 286

Graphs and tables What is on the x axis on a histogram

Answer 286

Continuous scores

Question 287

Graphs and tables What is on the y axis for histograms

Answer 287

Frequency of data scores

Question 288

Graphs and tables How are the bars for a histogram

Answer 288

No spaces between bars as data is continuous and column width should be same for each category

Question 289

Graphs and tables What is on the x axis for a line graph or frequency polygon

Answer 289

Continuous data

Question 290

Graphs and tables How is a line graph or frequency polygon produced

Answer 290

Drawing line from midpoint top of each bar

Question 291

Graphs and tables Advantage of line graph

Answer 291

Two or more frequency distributions can be compared on same graph

Question 292

Graphs and tables When is a scattergraph used

Answer 292

With correlation data Two different covariables

Question 293

Graphs and tables How is a scatterghraph plotted

Answer 293

One score along x axis and one up y axis

Question 294

Graphs and tables What does a scattergrpah show

Answer 294

Relationship between two variables

Question 295

Graphs and tables What has to be in the tile of a scattergraph

Answer 295

Relationship between …

Question 296

Graphs and tables What are pie charts used to show

Answer 296

Frequency of categories as percentages

Question 297

Graphs and tables How do you know which category is which on a pie chart

Answer 297

Sections colour coded and labelled with percentage (could be asked to predict)

Question 298

Self report What is self report

Answer 298

Where participant gives information to the researcher and provides details of their own thoughts feeling and behaviour

Question 299

Self report What does a questionnaire involve

Answer 299

A pre set list of written questions to which participants responds used to asses thoughts or feelings

Question 300

Self report What might questionnaires be used as in an experiments

Answer 300

To asses the DV

Question 301

Self report What are the two types of questions

Answer 301

Open and closed

Question 302

Self report What are open questions

Answer 302

Don’t have a fixed range of answers and respondents free to answer in any way

Question 303

Self report What type of data do open questions produce

Answer 303

Qualitative data rich in depth and. Detail

Question 304

Self report Is data from open questions easy to analyse

Answer 304

May be difficult

Question 305

Self report What are closed questions

Answer 305

Offers a fixed number of responses such as yes or no, a 1-10 scale

Question 306

Self report What type of data is produces from closed questions

Answer 306

Quantitative which may lack detail sna dos depth

Question 307

Self report Is it easy to analyses data from closed questions

Answer 307

Yes

Question 308

Self report Strengths of qeistionaires

Answer 308

Cost effective- can gather large amounts of data as distribution to large amounts of people Completed without researcher being present which reduced effort and investigator effects Can be easierly statistically analysed as comparisons made using graphs charts using either qualitative or quantitative data Standardised so easy to replicate

Question 309

Self report Questionnaire weaknesses

Answer 309

Demand characteristics Social desirability when participants answer in a way which makes themselves look better Acquiescence bias as peop,e agree with items regardless of the question Misunderstanding questio eg confusing Biased sample as only people willing to complete them which may be a certain type of person so not representative Low response rates can be uneconomical

Question 310

Self report What are interviews

Answer 310

Involve face to face interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee

Question 311

Self report What are the three types of interviews

Answer 311

Structured, unstructured and semi structured

Question 312

Self report What are structured interviews

Answer 312

Made up of pre determines set of questions asked in a fixed order Interviewer asks question and waits for response

Question 313

Self report What are unstructured interviews

Answer 313

More conversation like and no set of wqiestions General aim or topic to be discussed Interviewee encourage to explained and elaborate answers

Question 314

Self report What are semi structured interviews

Answer 314

List of question worked out in advance but interviewers free to follow up with qiuestions where appropriate

Question 315

Self report Advantages of interviews

Answer 315

Less misunderstanding as can be explained or adapted to understand Replication- structured interviews can be easily replicated Unstructured interviews allows follow up of point to gain more insights

Question 316

Self report Disadvantages of interviews

Answer 316

Interviewer effects - unconsciously biogas answers Demand characteristics and social desirability bias Lot of skill needed for unstructured interviews Ethics if participants don’t know true purpose Analysis of data from unstructured interview isn’t easy and drawing conclusions from vast amounts of data may not be possible

Question 317

Self report What is social desirability bias

Answer 317

tendency for respondents to answer questions in such a way that presents themselves in a better light which lowers validity

Question 318

Self report design When designing a questionnaire what can closed questions be further divided into

Answer 318

Likert scales Rating scales Fixed choice options

Question 319

Self report design What are likert scales

Answer 319

Respondent indicates their agreement or other wise with a state sent using a scale of usually 5 points ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree (each number attached with a statement)

Question 320

Self report design What are rating scales

Answer 320

Respondent identify a value that represents their strength of feeling about the topics

Question 321

Self report design What a fixed choice option

Answer 321

Includes list of possible options and respondents are required to indicate those which apply to them

Question 322

Self report design What a interview schedules

Answer 322

List of questions the interviewer intends to ask

Question 323

Self report design Why is the interview schedule standardised

Answer 323

To reduce interviewer bias

Question 324

Self report design What should a interview be began with

Answer 324

Neutral questions making participant feel relaxed/ comfortable and establish rapport

Question 325

Self report design What should participants be reminded of

Answer 325

Confidentiality or right to withdraw

Question 326

Self report design What should be avoided when writing questions

Answer 326

Overuse of technical terms which lead to confusion and frustration Emotive language and leading questions Double barrelled questions Double negatives

Question 327

Content analysis What is it

Answer 327

Techniques for analysing qualitative data of various kinds

Question 328

Content analysis What is it a method for

Answer 328

Quantifying qualitative data by placing the categories and counting their occurrence

Question 329

Content analysis What is it a type of

Answer 329

Observational research in which people are studied indirectly via communications they have produced

Question 330

Content analysis What is the process

Answer 330

Familiarise yourself with data Identify important categories Give examples Repeatedly read through/ watch/ listen Count and tally behaviours

Question 331

Content analysis What are the strengths (short-list)

Answer 331

Ease of applications Complement other method Reliability Avoids ethical issues Type of data produces

Question 332

Content analysis Why is ease of application a strength

Answer 332

Easy to perform Inexpensive research method Noninvasive as doesn’t require participants

Question 333

Content analysis Why is complementing other methods a strength

Answer 333

Can verify results from other research methods and is especially useful as a longitudinal tool

Question 334

Content analysis Why is reliability a strength

Answer 334

Easy to replicate using same materials

Question 335

Content analysis How is avoiding ethical issues a strength

Answer 335

Much of the material such as adverts or newspapers are already in public domain so no issues with permission

Question 336

Content analysis Weaknesses (short-list)

Answer 336

Descriptive Flowed results Lack of causality Lack of objectivity

Question 337

Content analysis Why is descitipitve a weakness

Answer 337

Doesn’t reveal underlying reasons for behaviour or attitudes

Question 338

Content analysis Why is flawed result a weakness

Answer 338

Limited by availability of material so observed trends may not reflect reality eg negative events receive more coverage then positive ones

Question 339

Content analysis Why is lack of causality a weakness

Answer 339

Not performed under controlled conditions

Question 340

Content analysis What is thematic analysis

Answer 340

Qualitative analytic method involves analysing data to identify patterns and themes within it Organises describes and interprets data Themes become categories for analysis

Question 341

Content analysis Stagesfor thematic analysis

Answer 341

Familiarisation with data Coding Searching for themes Reviewing themes Defining and naming themes Writing up

Question 342

Content analysis What is familiarisation with data for thematic

Answer 342

Intensively reading data to become immersed in its content

Question 343

Content analysis What is coding for thematic

Answer 343

Generating codes that identify features of the data important to answering the research question

Question 344

Content analysis What’s searching for themes in thematic

Answer 344

Examining codes and dara to identify patterns of meaning

Question 345

Content analysis What is reviewing themes in thematic

Answer 345

Checking potential themes to see if they explains the data and answer the research question themes are then refined

Question 346

Content analysis What is defining and naming themes for thematic

Answer 346

Detailed analysis of each theme creating an informative name for each one

Question 347

Content analysis What is writing up in thematic

Answer 347

Combining all information gained from the analysis

Question 348

Content analysis What is the difference between content analysis and thematic analysis

Answer 348

Thematic goes beyond just counting words or phrases it involved identifying ideas within data and analysing and interpreting

Question 349

Implications of psychological research on the economy What are implications

Answer 349

How what we learn from they findings of psychological research influences affects benefits or devalues the economy

Question 350

Implications of psychological research on the economy What does psychology create and why

Answer 350

Practical applications used in everyday life hopefully for betterment of society throng conducting research

Question 351

Implications of psychological research on the economy What is an example of the practical application

Answer 351

Creating effective therapies

Question 352

Implications of psychological research on the economy What do these practical applications allow for and how impact economy

Answer 352

Developed through research allowing many people to go to work and contribute to the economy, earn ,money, pay taxes, not incur long term financial costs upon health service, business don’t pay sick pay and recruite employees to cover absence

Question 353

Implications of psychological research on the economy What are the 4 questions needed to answer the question

Answer 353

What has this research told us, what specifically discovered? What has this led to? What are the consequences for the individual concerned ? What are the implications for businesses or the wider economy

Question 354

Implications of psychological research on the economy What are the sentence prompts to use

Answer 354

Psychological research into … has told us that… This has led to… (practical application) The consequences for the individual are … Implications for businesses or wider economy are…

Question 355

Choosing a statistical test Table

Answer 355

LEARN BLURT

Question 356

Choosing a statistical test What is the pneumonic for it

Answer 356

Carrots should come mashed with swede under roast potatoes

Question 357

Choosing a statistical test What three factors do you need to decide

Answer 357

Whether researcher is looking for difference or correlation Which experimental design is being used Level of measurement

Question 358

Peer review What is peer review

Answer 358

Assessment of scientific work by others who are experts in the same field

Question 359

Peer review Why is it used

Answer 359

Major method used by scientific community to evaluate research and decide what is suitable for publication

Question 360

Peer review What does it ensure

Answer 360

That any research conducted and published is of high quality and accurate in terms of methodology, data analysis etc

Question 361

Peer review What does it evaluate

Answer 361

Research in terms of aims and value and reduces chances of flawed or unscientific research being accepted as fact

Question 362

Peer review How is peer review used for grants

Answer 362

Research is paid for by various government and charitable bodies and has a duty to spend its money responsibly therefore reviews are needed to hep decide which research is likely to be worthwhile

Question 363

Peer review What does journal do and how do they link to peer review

Answer 363

Journals provide scientists with opportunity to share results of their research and peer review is a means of preventing incorrect or faulty data entering the public domain

Question 364

Peer review What is the process of peer review

Answer 364

Several expert reviewers would be sent copies of a researchers work by a journal editor who then report back to editor highlighting weaknesses or problem areas and suggestions for improvement

Question 365

Peer review What might the reviewers recommend

Answer 365

A) The work is accepted unconditionally B) the work is accepted as long as it is improved in certain ways C) work is rejected but suggest revisions D) research should be rejected outright

Question 366

Peer review What is a single blind review

Answer 366

Involves the reviewers names not being reviewed to the researcher and idea that reviewer anonymity allows for an unbiased review free from interference by researcher

Question 367

Peer review What is a double blind review

Answer 367

Involves both reviewer and researcher being anonymous and idea that bias based on researcher will not occur and research will be peer reviewed fairly

Question 368

Peer review What is an open review

Answer 368

Where researcher and reviewed are known top each other to try to reduce risk of personal comments and plagiarism and tries to encourage honest open peer reviewing

Question 369

Peer review Who makes the final decision

Answer 369

The journal editors as to whether to accept or reject the research report based on reviewers comments

Question 370

Peer review 4 criticisms

Answer 370

Finding an expert Anonymity Burying ground breaking research Publication bias

Question 371

Peer review What is the criticism for finding an expert

Answer 371

Isn’t always possible to find an appropriate expert with sufficient knowledge to review a researchers proposal or repot if topic is obscure

Question 372

Peer review What does problems finding experts mean

Answer 372

Poor research may be passed because reviewer didn’t really understand it

Question 373

Peer review What are the problems with anonymity

Answer 373

Researcher is conducted in a social world where people compete for grants and jobs so social relationships inevitably effect objectivity to reviewers may use the veil of anonymity to settle old scores or bury rival reseacrh

Question 374

Peer review What is there a danger of with anonymity

Answer 374

Anonymous reviewers may delay the review process to allow them to publish similar research first (even plagiarising the research ) or hide hide behind their anonymity to be underservedly harsh

Question 375

Peer review Why is anonymity hard to establish

Answer 375

Likely would still be identifiable from the writing or research style or topic etc

Question 376

Peer review Who controls the ability to pubshish research problems and who is this limiting

Answer 376

Elites Therefore may be resistance to revolutionary ideas that go against the elite prevailing views

Question 377

Peer review How can peer review go against dissenting or unconventional work

Answer 377

Preference for research that goes with existing theory

Question 378

Peer review How can peer review act as an element that slows rate of change

Answer 378

Science is generally resistant to large a shift in opinion and change tales a long time and requires revolution in the way people think

Question 379

Peer review What publication bias is there

Answer 379

Journals tend to prefer to publish Positve results possible because editors want research that has important implications in order to increase the standing of their journal

Question 380

Peer review What does this result in

Answer 380

Bias in published research leading to misinterpretation of true facts

Question 381

Peer review What can journals avoid publications

Answer 381

Straight replications of a study which is an important part of research validation

Question 382

Inferential testing Why do we do statistical testing

Answer 382

Provides a way of determining whether the null hypothesis should be accepted or rejected In psychology tell us whether differences or relationships between variables are statistically significant or have probably occurred by chance

Question 383

Inferential testing What is the accepted significance levels in psychology

Answer 383

0.05

Question 384

Inferential testing What is a significance levels

Answer 384

Level at which the researcher decides to accept the research hypothesis or not If the experimental hypothesis is accepted this means there is less than 5% probability that the results have occurred by chance and atleast (95% certain that the difference found was because the manipulation of IV affected the DV

Question 385

Inferential testing When may a different significance levels be see and what is it

Answer 385

If new drugs are being trialled at 0.01 sl

Question 386

Inferential testing What does the calculated value need to be compared with

Answer 386

Critical value in a table to decide whether the results are significant or not

Question 387

Inferential testing What do you need to kw to find critical value

Answer 387

Significance levels (0.05 unless stated) Number of participants (N) of df Whether one tailed or two tailed

Question 388

Inferential testing How do you compare critical value to calculated value

Answer 388

Will be told in exam

Question 389

Inferential testing How do you find critical value

Answer 389

On table

Question 390

Inferential testing Which tests use degrees of freedom over N

Answer 390

Chi squared or t tests

Question 391

Inferential testing How do you workout df from t test

Answer 391

Number of participants - 1

Question 392

Inferential testing How do you work out degrees of freedom from chi squared

Answer 392

(Rows - 1)( comulms - 1)

Question 393

Inferential testing What does it mean if the results are significant at the 5% level

Answer 393

There is a less than 5% likelihood that the difference would occur by chance and 95% confidence that the difference is genuine

Question 394

Inferential testing What two errors can be made

Answer 394

Type l error Type ll error

Question 395

Inferential testing What is a type l error

Answer 395

Optimistic error

Question 396

Inferential testing What does a type l error mean

Answer 396

Alternative hypothesis is accepted but null hypothesis is correct so the difference or relationship is wrongly accepted as a real one

Question 397

Inferential testing What is a type ll error

Answer 397

Pessimistic error

Question 398

Inferential testing What does a type ll error mean

Answer 398

Null hypothesis is accepted but alternative hypothesis is correct and a differecne or relationship is wrong let’s accepted as being insignificant

Question 399

Inferential testing Why is a 5% signinfance levvel the accepted level

Answer 399

Strikes difference between making a type i error and type ll error

Question 400

Inferential testing What kind of type can be asked to do in exam

Answer 400

Sign test

Question 401

Inferential testing How do you find the observed s value for sign test

Answer 401

Use a plus or minus sign to indicate the direction of difference for each participant To calculate s add up number of time the less frequency sign occurs

Question 402

Inferential testing How do you find if s value significant or not

Answer 402

Get the critical value of s from a critical value table and dev code if one or two tailed then compare to s value

Question 403

Inferential testing What is important about N when doing a sign test

Answer 403

Need the number of participants omitting any with no sign /change

Question 404

Validity and reliability What is validity

Answer 404

Whether an observed effect is a genuine one

Question 405

Validity and reliability What are the two types

Answer 405

Internal external

Question 406

Validity and reliability What is internal validity

Answer 406

Concerns what goes on inside the experiment Did the IV produce the change in the DV or was it caused by something else

Question 407

Validity and reliability What threatens internal validity

Answer 407

Confounding variables as participant variables Confounding variables as situational variables Demand characteristics Social desirability bias

Question 408

Validity and reliability What are participant variables

Answer 408

Age intelligence motivation experience gender

Question 409

Validity and reliability What are situational variables

Answer 409

Time of day temperature noise order effects investigator effects

Question 410

Validity and reliability What are demand characteristics

Answer 410

Please or screw you effect

Question 411

Validity and reliability What is social desirability bias

Answer 411

Participants present themselves in the best way possible or what is socially acceptable

Question 412

Validity and reliability What is internal validity mostly about

Answer 412

Control

Question 413

Validity and reliability What is external validity

Answer 413

Relates to generalising being able to apply or generalise the findings beyond the research setting

Question 414

Validity and reliability What are the types of external validity

Answer 414

Ecological validity Population validity Temporal validity

Question 415

Validity and reliability What is ecological validity

Answer 415

Can we generalise to different places or settings

Question 416

Validity and reliability What is population validity

Answer 416

Can we generalise to different people or populations

Question 417

Validity and reliability What is temporal validity

Answer 417

Can we generalise to different times

Question 418

Validity and reliability What are the two parts of ecological validity

Answer 418

Mundane realism Generalisability

Question 419

Validity and reliability Whay is mundane realism

Answer 419

Whether a study mirrors real world or everyday experiences

Question 420

Validity and reliability What is generalisability

Answer 420

Extent to which findings from one study conducted in a unique way can be generalised to other setting including the real world

Question 421

Validity and reliability Hat are the 4 ways validity can be assessed

Answer 421

Lie scale Face validity Concurrent validity Predictive validity

Question 422

Validity and reliability What is lie scale

Answer 422

Including questions that act as truth detectors respondents who lie on a high proportion of lie scale items may not be giving truthful answers elsewhere in stduy

Question 423

Validity and reliability What is face validity

Answer 423

Extent to which items look like what a test claims to measure

Question 424

Validity and reliability What is concurrent validity

Answer 424

Assesses validity by correlating scores on a test with another test known to be valid

Question 425

Validity and reliability What is predictive validity

Answer 425

Assesses validity bu predicting how well a test predicts future behaviour

Question 426

Validity and reliability How can validity be improved in experimental validity

Answer 426

Using a control group to assess whether changes to DV were due to IV Standardise procedure to minimise impact of participants reactivity and investigator effects Single and double blind procedures to reduce effects of demand characteristics and investigator effects Field experiments

Question 427

Validity and reliability How do you improve validity for qualitative methods

Answer 427

Usually thought of having higher ecological validity Depth and detail in case studies reflects participants reality Researcher demonstrate interpretive validity of their conclusions demonstrated by direct quotes within report Can also be improved though triangultion using number of different sources as evidence

Question 428

Validity and reliability How can validity be improved in questionnaires

Answer 428

Assure respondents of anonymity Revise items on questionaire after a pilot study

Question 429

Validity and reliability How can validity be improved for observations

Answer 429

Covert observations result in behaviour more natural and authentic Naturalistic observation have higher ecological validity as there may be minimal intervention by researcher Behavioural categories made shoudlnt be too broad overlapping or amibiguous as may have negative impact of validity of data

Question 430

Validity and reliability What is reliability

Answer 430

Measure of consistency

Question 431

Validity and reliability How can validity and reliability linked

Answer 431

Is results are unreliable cannot be valid Can be reliable but not valid

Question 432

Validity and reliability What are the two types of reliability

Answer 432

Internal reliability External reliability

Question 433

Validity and reliability What is internal reliability

Answer 433

Extent to which a measure is consistent within itself

Question 434

Validity and reliability What is external reliability

Answer 434

Extent to which a measure is consistent over time

Question 435

Validity and reliability How is internal reliability assessed

Answer 435

Split half method

Question 436

Validity and reliability How is split half method done

Answer 436

Split a test in two same participants does both halves If both halves provide similar results the test has internal reliability

Question 437

Validity and reliability How is external reliability assessed

Answer 437

Test retest method Inter observer reliability

Question 438

Validity and reliability How is test retest method done

Answer 438

Give same test to same participant on two occasions If same result is obtained reliability established

Question 439

Validity and reliability How is interobserver reliability done

Answer 439

Asses whether observers are viewing and rating behaviour in the same way Achieved by conducting correlations of all observers scores Improved by developing clearly defined and separate categories of observational criteria

Question 440

Validity and reliability How can reliability be improved in questionnaires

Answer 440

Some items may need to be taken out or rewritten and may be interpreted differently by same person on separate occasion Replacing open questions with closed fix choice alternative may be less ambiguous

Question 441

Validity and reliability How can reliability of experiments be improved

Answer 441

Lab experiments more reliable as more control Precise replication of a method ensures all participants are tested under same conditions

Question 442

Validity and reliability How can reliability of interviews be improved

Answer 442

Use same interviewer All interviews must be properly trained to avoid leading/ ambiguous questions Structured interviews investigator behaviour more controlled by fixed questions Unstructured interviews are likely yo be more unreliable

Question 443

Validity and reliability How can reliability be improved for observations

Answer 443

Make sure behavioural categories properly operationalised measurable and self evident Categories shouldn’t overlap All possible behaviours covered to prevent observers having to make own judgements leading to inconsistent results Controlled observations more reliable than naturalistic

Question 444

Reporting psychological investigations What do psychologists do when they write up their research for publication in journal articles

Answer 444

Use a conventional format

Question 445

Reporting psychological investigations What is the conventional format

Answer 445

Title Abstract Introduction Aims and hypotheses Method Results Discussion Conclusion References Appendices

Question 447

Reporting psychological investigations What is title

Answer 447

Clear relevant and fully informative

Question 448

Reporting psychological investigations What is abstract

Answer 448

Summary of research (150-200) words Includes aims hypotheses method procedure results conclusions suggestions for future research

Question 449

Reporting psychological investigations What is introduction

Answer 449

Why study was conducted theoretical background previous research beginning broadly then narrowing to aims and hypotheses

Question 450

Reporting psychological investigations What is aims and hypotheses

Answer 450

Includes alternative ands null hypotheses one or two tailed and level of significance

Question 451

Reporting psychological investigations What is method

Answer 451

In enough detail so others could replicate it includes design sample apparatus materials procedures and ethics

Question 452

Reporting psychological investigations What is results

Answer 452

Descriptive statistics eg tab;les graphs measures of central tendency and dispersion Inferential statistics eg choice of statistical test calculated and critical values and which hypothesis was accepted

Question 453

Reporting psychological investigations What is discussion

Answer 453

Explanation of findings relationship to background research limitations and possible improvements to research implications and suggestions for future research

Question 454

Reporting psychological investigations What is conclusion

Answer 454

Concise paragraphs to summarise key conclusions drawn from study

Question 455

Reporting psychological investigations What are references

Answer 455

Full detail of any material researcher drew upon or cited

Question 456

Reporting psychological investigations Why are references needed

Answer 456

So studies used can be further looked into by readers Reduce plagiarism

Question 457

Reporting psychological investigations What is appendices

Answer 457

Contains standardised instructions given to participants raw data and calculations plus other stimulus materials usd

Question 458

Reporting psychological investigations How do you reference from journal articles

Answer 458

Author surname, initial year of publication title of article title of journal volume number page number

Question 459

Reporting psychological investigations How do you defences from author

Answer 459

Author surname initial eds if editors year of publication title of book place of publication publisher

Question 460

Reporting psychological investigations How do you references from chapters in booms

Answer 460

Combines aspects of the procedure for journal articles and books by giovning the author of ther chapter their chapter title followed by book