Memory Flashcards
1
Q
The multi store memory model
Who was it devised by
A
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
2
Q
The multi store memory model
It is the first cognitive explanation what was prior to it
A
Mainly biological psychologists who has tried to explain memory
3
Q
The multi store memory model
Through what series of storage systems does the model explain how information flows
A
Sensory register, short term memory, long term memory
4
Q
The multi store memory model
What’s coding
A
Form in which information is stored
5
Q
The multi store memory model
What is capacity
A
How much information can be stored
6
Q
The multi store memory model
What is duration
A
How long information can be stored
7
Q
The multi store memory model
What goes into the sensory register
A
Stimulus from the environment
8
Q
The multi store memory model
What happen if information leaves the memory from sensory register
A
Decays
9
Q
The multi store memory model
What goes from sensory register to short term memory
A
Attention
10
Q
The multi store memory model
What goes from short term memory when information leaves the memory
A
Recall
11
Q
The multi store memory model
What can keep something in short term memory for longer
A
Maintenance rehearsal
12
Q
The multi store memory model
What goes from short term memory to long term memory
A
Elaborative rehearsal
13
Q
The multi store memory model
What goes from long term memory to short term memory
A
Retrieval
14
Q
The multi store memory model
What is the sensory register
A
First storage system in the MSM
Information gathered by the sense organs
Not under cognitive control is an automatic response to the reception of sensory information
15
Q
The multi store memory model
What happens to information in the sensory register
A
Only small amount that is paid attention to will pass on to the short term memory for further processing and the rest is lost very quickly
16
Q
The multi store memory model
How is info coded in the sensory register
A
Information stored in raw unprocessed form with separate sensory stores for different sensory inputs
17
Q
The multi store memory model
Example of stores within the sensory register
A
Iconic, echoic or haptic
18
Q
The multi store memory model
What information passes to the STM
A
Information which is paid attention to
19
Q
The multi store memory model
What is the capacity of the SR
A
Very large/unlimited
20
Q
The multi store memory model
What is the duration of the SR
A
Less than half a second
21
Q
The multi store memory model
What is the main form of coding in the STM
A
Acoustically
22
Q
The multi store memory model
What is the capacity of the STM
A
5-9 items
23
Q
The multi store memory model
How can the capacity in the STM be increased
A
By chunking
24
Q
The multi store memory model
What is chunking
A
Where the size of the units of information in storage is increased by giving them a collective measuring
25
The multi store memory model
What is the duration of the STM
18-30 seconds
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The multi store memory model
How can duration be increases in the STM
Repetition of the information
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The multi store memory model
What length of Time does information have to be stored for to count as LTM
Longer than 30 secs
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The multi store memory model
What is the coding in the LTM
Semantically (based on meaning)
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The multi store memory model
What is the capacity of LTM
Unlimited
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The multi store memory model
Why is info lost out of the LTM
Due to decay and interference
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The multi store memory model
What is the duration of the LTM
Lifespan
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The multi store memory model AO3
2 strengths
Research evidence
The serial position effect
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The multi store memory model AO3
What evidence supports MSM
Baddeley (1966)
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The multi store memory model AO3
What did baddeley (1966) do
Gave different lists of words to four groups to remember
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The multi store memory model AO3
What were the 4 groups in Baddeley (1966)
Group1 had acoustically similar words
Group 2 acoustically dissimilar
Group 3 Semantically similar
Group 4 Semantically dissimilar
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The multi store memory model AO3
What happened when Baddeley (1966) asked to recall words immediately
Represented the STM and participants tended to do worse with acoustically similar words
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The multi store memory model AO3
What happened when Baddeley asked to recall words after 20 mins
Represented LTM and participants did worse on semantically similar words
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The multi store memory model AO3
What does Baddeley (1966) suggest
Information is coded acoustically in STM and semantically in LTM
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The multi store memory model AO3
What does the serial position effect support about the MSM
Of there being separate STM and LTM stores
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The multi store memory model AO3
What is the serial position effect
Words at bee gunning and end of list are recalled better than those in the middle
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The multi store memory model AO3
Why are words at the beginning of the list recalled and what is the effect called
Recalled because they’ve been rehearse and transferred to the LTM
Primary effect
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The multi store memory model AO3
Why are words at the end of the list recalled and what is the effect called
Recalled as still in STM
Recency effect
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The multi store memory model AO3
2 weaknesses
Over simplified
Artificial materials
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The multi store memory model AO3
What about the MSM is said to be oversimplified
Single STM and LTM stores
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The multi store memory model AO3
Why is there only being a single STM might be wrong
Research indicated there are several types of STM eg verbal and non verbal sounds and at the very least there must be one short term store to process visual information and another to process auditory information
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The multi store memory model AO3
Why mightt there only being one LTM be wrong
Research suggests there are different types of LTM eg episodic and semantic memories
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The multi store memory model AO3
What do we remember in real life
Form memories related to all sort of useful things such as faces names and facts
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The multi store memory model AO3
Why is much of the research supporting MSM artificial
Used digits letters that have no meaning
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The multi store memory model AO3
Why is using artificial materials a weakness
Not representative of memory in everyday life
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Types of long term memory
Who realised the MSM view of LTM was too simplistic and inflexible
Tulving (1985) who was a cognitive psychologist
51
Types of long term memory
What does research suggest about the types of long term memory
The existence of several types each with separate function and associated with different brain area
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Types of long term memory
What are the three types of LTM
Episodic semantic and procedural
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Types of long term memory
What does explicit mean
Conscious
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Types of long term memory
What does implicit mean
Unconscious
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Types of long term memory
What type of LTM us explicit
Episodic and semantic
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Types of long term memory
What type of LTM is implicit
Unconscious
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Types of long term memory
What is episodic memory
Ability to recall events from our life like a diary and is unique to the individual gives individual an autobiographical record of personal experience
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Types of long term memory
Whayt is the strength of episodic memory influenced by
Emotions present at the time a memory is encoded eg traumatic events are often weak recalled due to high emotional content
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Types of long term memory
What aids the retrieval of episodic memories
Context
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Types of long term memory
Examples of eoipsodic memory
Breakfast you ate this morning
Holiday you went on last year
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Types of long term memory
For episodic memory what brain. Structures are involved
Prefrontal cortex brain area
Neocortex
Different visual,auditory etc areas
Hippocampus
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Types of long term memory
For episodic what is the prefrontal cortex brain area associated with
Initial coding of episodic memories
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Types of long term memory
For episodic what is the neocortex associated with
Consolidation and storage
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Types of long term memory
For episodic what do the different visual, auditory etc areas of the brain have to do with it
Memories of the different part of the event located in different areas
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Types of long term memory
For episodic what does the hippocampus do
Different parts are connected together to create a memory if an episode rather than a collection of separate memories
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Types of long term memory
For episodic why can we remember when they happened
They are time stamped eg recently or last week
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Types of long term memory
For episodic How are does a single episode include several elements
For example people places objects or behaviours which are all interwoven to produce a single memory.
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Types of long term memory
What is semantic memory
Contains our knowledge of the world including facts concepts rules and meanings
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Types of long term memory
Semantic memory compare to episodic memory
Less personal and more about facts we know
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Types of long term memory
What is the semantic memory detached from
Any temporal link (not related to a specific time)
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Types of long term memory
How are semantic memory associated
With other facts that link concepts together like bird and nest
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Types of long term memory
What does semantic memories being able to be input in a fragmentary way mean
We can piece factual information together that has been learned at different points in time
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Types of long term memory
How are semantic and episodic memories linked
Both positively associated with the degree of processing occurring during coding
Linked as new knowledge tends to be learned from experience therefore episodic underpins semantic
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Types of long term memory
For semantic what happens to the link between knowledge and the event/experience as time goes on
Becomes increasingly divorced
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Types of long term memory
For semantic brain areas involved in semantic
Disagreement over which brain areas but some evidence suggest involvement or hippocampus and related areas, others believe there’s usage of several brain areas
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Types of long term memory
For semantic where is coding mainly associated from in the brain
The frontal and temporal lobes
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Types of long term memory
In semantic why can we recall a fact without interfering with that knowledge
Retrieval from semantic memory leaves the memory trace relatively unchanged from its original forms
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Types of long term memory
What is procedural memory
Memory for actions or skills that can be recalled without conscious awareness or effort
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Types of long term memory
Example of procedural memory
Driving a car
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Types of long term memory
When do many procedural LTMs occur
Early in life involving the learning of important motor skills such as walking
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Types of long term memory
How is language a procedural LTM
Helping individuals to speak automatically using grammar etc without thinking how top
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Types of long term memory
What other LTM can procedural work with and why
Semantic as procedural doesn’t require conscious though it allows other cognitive tasks to be performed simultaneously
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Types of long term memory
What brain areas is the procedural memory associated with
Mainly the neocortex brain areas - primary motor cortex, cerebellum and prefrontal cortex
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Types of long term memory
What us special about procedural LTM involving brain areas
Doesn’t need the hippocampus to funtion
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Types of long term memory AO3
2 strengths
Neuroimaging evidence
Real life application
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Types of long term memory AO3
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Types of long term memory AO3
How does neuroimaging evidence types of LTM
Evidence from brain scan studies shows different types of memory are stirred in different parts of the brain
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Types of long term memory AO3
What research backs the use of neuroimaging
Tulving
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Types of long term memory AO3
what did Tulving do using neuroimaging
Got participants to perform various memory tasks whilst having a PET scan
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Types of long term memory AO3
What did Tulving find from us sing neuroimaging
Episodic and semantic both recalled from prefrontal cortex
Left prefrontal cortex involved in recalling semantic memories
Epdisodic memories recalled from right prefrontal cortex
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Types of long term memory AO3
How does tulvin support types of LTM
Supports idea that there is a physical reality to the different types of LTM within the brain and has been confirmed many times with later studies
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Types of long term memory AO3
How is real life application a strength
Being able to identify different aspects of LTM allows psychologists to target certain kinds of memory with treatment
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Types of long term memory AO3
What research’s relates to real life application
Belleville et al
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Types of long term memory AO3
What did Belleville eat al demonstrate
Episodic memories could be improved in older people who had mild cognitive impairment and trained participant performed better on an epidosiduc test than a control group
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Types of long term memory AO3
Results of Belleville eg al for real life app,citation
Benefit of being able to distinguish between different types of LTM as specific treatment can be developed
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Types of long term memory AO3
2 weaknesses
Problems with clinical evidence
Lack of research for procedural memory
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Types of long term memory AO3
Examples f clinical evidence
Psycholgists very interested with people with brain injuries
Such as HM who provided lots of useful information about what happens when memory is damaged
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Types of long term memory AO3
Weakness of using clinical evidence
Serious lack of control and all sorts of variables
Generalising from case studies problematic due to unique sample
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Types of long term memory AO3
Why is there a lack of procedural memory research
Case studies are needed of people with damage to procedural memory rather than semantic and episodic but this is rare
100
The working memory model
Who came up with it
Baddeley and Hitch
101
The working memory model
Why did baddeley and hitch come up with it
Questioned the existence of a single STM store and argued STM was more complex then just being a temporary store for transferring information to the LTM
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The working memory model
What did baddekley and hitch see the STM as
An active sort holding several pieces of information while they were being worked on
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The working memory model
What is it an explanation of
How one aspect of memory STM is organised and how it functions
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The working memory model
STM is fragile so what is it frequently susceptible to
Distraction
Overload
Overwork
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The working memory model
How many components is there
Four
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The working memory model
What are the four components
Central executive
Episodic buffer
Phonological loop
Visuo-spatial sketch pad
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The working memory model
What are the two sub parts of the phonological loop
Articulatary process
Phonological store
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The working memory model
What are the two sub parts of the visuospatial skeptchpad
Visual cache
Inner scribe
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The working memory model
What is the phonological loop and the Visuo-spatial sketch pad known
Slave systems
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The working memory model
What is the central executive
Attentional process that monitors incoming data and can deal with different types of sensory information
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The working memory model ]
What does the central executive act as a filter to
To determine which information received by the sense organs is and isn’t attended to
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The working memory model
Capacity of the central executive
Limited and can only effectives cope with on strand of information at one time
113
The working memory model
What’s the role of the central executive
Supervisory role makes decision and directs attention to the slave system and decides what working memory pays attention to and has the capacity to focus divide and switch attention
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The working memory model
When does the central executive balance tasks
When attention needs to be divided
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The working memory model
What does the phonological loop deal with and why
Auditory information because coding is acoustic
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The working memory model
When does confusion occur for the phonological loop
Similar sounding words
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The working memory model
How does the phonological loop order information
Preserve the order in which it arrives
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The working memory model
What is the phonological store
Passive store which holds the words you hear for few seconds unless refreshed by the articulatory loop (inner ear )
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The working memory model
What is the articulaory process
Allows maintenance rehearsal to keep words/sounds in working memory whilst they are needed
120
The working memory model
What is the capacity for the articulatory loop beloved to be
Two seconds worth of what you can say
121
The working memory model
What is the visuo-spatial sketch pad
Visual and spatial (relationship between things) held and manipulated here
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The working memory model
What is he capacity of the visuo-spatial sketch pad
Limited about 3 or 4 objects
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The working memory model
How does the visuo-spatial sketch pad deal with information
Can deal directly through observing images or retrieving info from the LTM
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The working memory model
What is the visual cache
Passive store dealing with visual data
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The working memory model
What is the inner scribe
Active store for spatial relations records the arrangement of objects in the visual field
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The working memory model
When was the episodic buffer added to the model and why
2000 to address the shortcoming of the model
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The working memory model
What the episodic buffer
Temporary store for information integrating the visual spatial and verbal information processes by other stores and maintaining a sense of time sequencing information processes by other stores and maintaining a sense of time sequencing basically recording events
128
The working memory model
What can the epidosic buffer be seen as
The storage component of the central executive and has a limited capacity of about 4 chunks
129
The working memory model
What does the episodic buffer link
Working memory to the LTM and wider cognitive processes such as perception
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The working memory model
What two predictions does it make
If two tasks make use of the same component they can’t be performed successfully together
If two tasks make use of different components it should be possible to perform them as well together as separately
131
The working memory model
What are the effects to do with the phonological loop
The word length effect
Articulatory suppression
Phonological similarity effect
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The working memory model
What is the word length effect
Short monosyllabic words are recalled more successfully than longer polysyllabic words so forgetting is more likely with longer words
133
The working memory model
Why does the word length effect happen
Longer words fill up the limited capacity of the articulatory process resulting in the decay of words positioned earlier in the list
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The working memory model
What is the articulatory suppression
Prevention from rehearsal by repeating an irrelevant sound fills up the space and displaces the actual information to be remembered
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The working memory model
Why does articulatory suppression happen
If participants asked to perform two tasks which require the phonological loop this will be difficult as they’ll already be using the phonological loop so it cannot be used to refresh the words to be learnt
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The working memory model
How does articulatory suppression show limited capacity
Cannot cope with more than one auditory task simultaneously
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The working memory model
What is the phonological similarity effect
Letters or words that sound alike are not usually recalled as well as letters or words that sound different as words that sound alike would affect the use of the phonological loop more than those that dont
138
The working memory model
What does the phonological similarity effect demonstrate
That the phonological store relies on acoustic coding for storage
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Working memory model AO3
2 strengths
Dual task performance
Brain scan support
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Working memory model AO3
What does dual task performance support evidence of
The separate existence of the visuospatial sketch pad and the phonological loop
141
Working memory model AO3
What evidence for dual task performance
Baddeley
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Working memory model AO3
What did baddeley do in relation to dual task performance
Showed participants had more difficulty doing two visual tasks than doing a visual and verbal task at the same time
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Working memory model AO3
Why is it hard to do both visual tasks at same time
Both tasks use same slave system
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Working memory model AO3
How does dual task performance evidence separate slave systems
Must be one which processes visual input and one which down phonological
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Working memory model AO3
What do brain scans support
Visual cache and inner scribe as separate components within the visuospatial sketch pad
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Working memory model AO3
How does brain scans support subdivided visuospatial sketch pad
Tasks involving visual objects activate an area in the left hemisphere and tasks involving spatial information activate areas in the right hemisphere
147
Working memory model AO3
2 weaknesses
Artificial tasks
Lack of clarity over central executive
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Working memory model AO3
What artificial tasks are used
Studies of the visuospatial sketch pad and phonological loops often feature a dual task technique where participant have to perform two simultaneous activities
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Working memory model AO3
How are tasks artificial
Actual tasks performed are often mot ones encountered much in everyday life
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Working memory model AO3
What is using artificial tasks bad
Studies can be accused of being artificial and lacking in mundane realism
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Working memory model AO3
What did baddeley say about the central executive
Most important but least understood component of working memory
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Working memory model AO3
What can the central executive be describes as and why is this surprising
Vague and untestable despite being component overall in charge
153
Working memory model AO3
What do some psychologists believe the WMM consists of and why is this bad
May consist of separate sub components which means the WMM hasn’t been fully explained
154
Working memory model AO3
How is the central executive probable best understood as
Component controlling the focus of attention rather than being a memory store
155
Explanations for forgetting
What can forgetting be defined as
Failure to retrieve memories
156
Explanations for forgetting
What are the two explanations for forgetting
Interference theory
Retrieval failure
157
Explanations for forgetting: interference theory
When does interference theory occur
When information in the LTM becomes confused with or disrupted by other information resulting in forgetting or some distortion of the memory
158
Explanations for forgetting: interference theory
Why do we mostly likely forget LTMs
Can’t access them even though they’re available due to inter fence
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Explanations for forgetting: interference theory
How is interference generally researched
By getting participants to lean two lists of words or word pairs
160
Explanations for forgetting: interference theory
What is likely about the memories that are interfering with each other
They were stored at different times
161
Explanations for forgetting: interference theory
What are the types of interference
Proactive and retroactive
162
Explanations for forgetting: interference theory
What is proactive interference
Older memory interferes with a newer one
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Explanations for forgetting: interference theory
What is retroactive interference
New memory interferes with older one
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Explanations for forgetting: interference theory
What increases the likelihood of interference (2)
When memories are similar
When there is no gap in between the two instances of learning
165
Explanations for forgetting: interference theory
What study studies retroactive interference
Mcgeogh and McDonald
166
Explanations for forgetting: interference theory
What did mcgeogh and McDonald do
Changed the amount of similarity between two sets of materials
Participants had to learn a list of words until they had 100% accuracy then learn a new list
167
Explanations for forgetting: interference theory
How many different group was there in mcgeogh and McDonald study
6
1-synonyms
2-antonyms
3-words unrelated to original ones
4-nonsense syllables
5-three digit numbers
6-no new list
168
Explanations for forgetting: interference theory
What we’re the findings of mcgeogh and McDonald
When participants had to recall original list performance depended on nature of second list
Synonyms produced the worst recall which shows interference strongest when memories are similar
169
Explanations for forgetting: interference theory ao3
2 strengths
Evidence from lab studies
Real life studies
170
Explanations for forgetting: interference theory ao3
What evidence is there from lab studies
Interference in memory is probably one of most consistently demonstrated findings in the whole of psychology
Thousands of lab experiments
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Explanations for forgetting: interference theory ao3
Example of a lab study
Mcgeogh and McDonald
172
Explanations for forgetting: interference theory ao3
What do most studies show
Both types of interference are common reasons for forgetting in LTM
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Explanations for forgetting: interference theory ao3
What do lab studies control for effects of
Irrelevant influences
174
Explanations for forgetting: interference theory ao3
Example of rel life study
Baddeley and hitch
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Explanations for forgetting: interference theory ao3
What did baddeley and hitch want to find out
If interference is a better explanation for forgetting than the passage of time
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Explanations for forgetting: interference theory ao3
What did baddeley and hitch do
Asked rugby players to remember the names of the teams they’d played so far in the season, week by week
Because some of the players had missed games, for some, the ‘last team’ they played might have been two weeks ago, or three weeks ago or more
177
Explanations for forgetting: interference theory ao3
Findings from baddeley and hitch
Results showed that accurate recall didn’t depend on how long ago the matches took place
More importantly was the number of games they played in the meantime
A player’s recall of a team from three weeks ago was better if they’d played no matches since then
Shows how interference can apply to some everyday situations
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Explanations for forgetting: interference theory ao3
2 weaknesses
Artificial materials
Time between learning
179
Explanations for forgetting: interference theory ao3
What is there more chance ointwrfernce will be shown by
Lab than real life situations
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Explanations for forgetting: interference theory ao3
What materials are artificial
Stimulus materials are lists of words or syllable to lean which isn’t how we use memory in every days life eg peoples faces
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Explanations for forgetting: interference theory ao3]
Why is artificial materials a limitation
Makes interference much more likely in a lab therefore not as likely explanation for forgetting in everyday life
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Explanations for forgetting: interference theory ao3
Weakness of time between learning meaning
In lab studies time between learning lists of words can be very short for practical reasons
Learning and recalling over in an hour
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Explanations for forgetting: interference theory ao3
What does there being a short time between learning and recalling mean in a lab study
Maximises chance of interference so lacks external validity and can’t be generalised outside of the lab situation
184
Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure
What is forgetting due to
Absence of cues
185
Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure
What is cue
A trigger of information that allows us to access a memory
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure
What are sorted at the same time as memories
Associated cues
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure
What happens if cues are nit available at recall
Retrieval failure may occur and appear as if you have forgotten the information
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure
What is encoding specificity Principle
If a cue is to help us recall information, it has to be present at encoding and at retrieval and forgetting will occur if the cues are different at encoding and recall or if absent all together
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure
What are the two typos of cues
External cues
Internal cues
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure
What is the type of forgetting if the external cues are different
Context dependent forgetting
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure
What is the type of forgetting if the internal cues are different
State dependant forgetting
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure
What are external cues
Environmental or contextual cues
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure
What are internal cues
Linked to individuals internal physiological or psychological state eg mood
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure ao3
2 strengths
Supporting evidence
Real life applications
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure ao3
What is supporting evidence of external cues
Golden and baddeley
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure ao3
What did godden and baddeley do and what were the groups
Divers learnt and recalled list of words either underwater or on land
Learn on land – recall on land
Learn on Land – recall underwater
Learn underwater – recall on land
Learn underwater – recall underwater
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure ao3
Findings of godden and baddeley
Accurate recall was 40% lower when recall done in different place compared to learning shows lack of external cues meant retrieval failure
198
Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure ao3
Why is supporting evidence good
Increases validity of an explanation
199
Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure ao3
Who experiences context dependent forgetting
Everyone
200
Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure ao3
What is a real life application
Cognitive interview
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure ao3
How does cognitive interview use this principle
Thinks back to the environment where the encoding took place which gets eyewitnesses to crimes to recall more information
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure ao3
2 weaknesses
Recall versus recognition
Problems with the encoding specificity principle
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure ao3
What may context effect be related to rather than external cues in studies
Type of memory being tested
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure ao3
What demonstrates recall versus recognition
Godden and baddeley repeated their underwater experiment with recognition tests of words instead of recall and no context dependent effect was found
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure ao3
Why is recognition vs recall a limitation
Means the presence or absence of cues only affects memory when tested ina certain way
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure ao3
What is they problem with the encoding specificity principle
Not scientifically testable and we just assume presence of a cue aided successful recall or absence led to forgetting
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Theories of forgetting: retrieval failure ao3
Why are assumptions of encoding specificity principle bad
No way to independently establish whether or not the cue has really been encoded
208
Factors affecting eyewitness testimony
What is an eyewitness testimony
Ability of people to remember details of events such as acccidents and crimes which they themselves observed
209
Factors affecting eyewitness testimony
What two factors need to know affect eyewitness testimonies
Misleading information and anxiety
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony misleading information
What is a leading question
question which because of the way it is phrased suggests a certain answer
211
Factors affecting eyewitness testimony misleading information
What study demonstrates leading questions
Loftus and Palmer
212
Factors affecting eyewitness testimony misleading information
What was the procedure for loftus and palmer
Participants watched film clip of car accidents then answered questions about them
They were asked a leading question about how fast the cars were travelling when the cars ‘…’
Each group of participants had a different verb eg smashed or connected
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony misleading information
What did loftus and palmer find
Verb contact red resulted in lower speed estimated
Verb smashed reulsited in higher speed estimated
Showed leading questions bias eyewitness recall of an event
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony misleading information
Why do leading questions affect EWT (2)
Response bias explanation
Substitution explanation
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony misleading information
What is response bias explanation
Suggests that the wording of the question has no real effect on the participants memories and that the wording just influences how they decide to answer
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony misleading information
What is the substitution explanation
Wording of the leading question actually changed the participants memory of the film clip
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What is post event discussion
Occurs when more than one witness to an event and they discuss what thy have seen
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Why can post event discussion info use the accuracy of eye witness recall of events
Through discussion eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated as they combine information from other witnesses with their memories
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What study demonstrated post event discussion
Gabbert et al
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What was gabbert et al procedure
Partiicpants watch video in pairs of same crime but filmed from different view points so could therefore see elements of the event that the other couldn’t
Then discussed what they had seen and individually complete a test of recall
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What were the findings of gabbert et al
71% recalled aspects that they had not seen in the video but picked up in the discussion
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What was concluded from gabbert et al
Memory conformity
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What is memory conformity
Witnesses often go along with each other to either win social approval or because they believe the other witnesses are right and they’re wrong
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2 strengths
Study research
Real life application for police interviews
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What research support this
Loftus and palmer
Gabbert et al
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What does loftus and palmer support
Idea that leading question can affect the reliability of EWT
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What did gabbert et al highlight
Impact of post event discussion can have on eyewitness memory of an event when thy mistakenly recall aspects they didn’t see
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What is the the consequences of inaccurate EWT
Very serious
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What did loftus believe
Leading questions can have such a distorting effect on Emory that police officers need to be careful about how they phrase questions when interviewing witness
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What is true for research into EWT
Area that psychologists feel they can make an important difference to the lives of real people
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What is the effect of EWT research in real life
Improves the way the legal system works and appear in court trials as expert witnesses
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2 weaknesses
Artificial tasks
Demands characteristics
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Example of artificial tasks
Loftus and palmer
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What of the loftus and palmer study is artificial
Participant watching clips of car accidents is very different experience from witnessing a real accident
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What generally is artificial about EWT in studies compared to real life
In real world what you remember as eyewitness can have inmportant consequences and is not the same in studies
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Why is artificial tasks a limitation
Studies using artificial tasks tell us a little about how leading questions affect ewt in real accidents or crimes
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What might have demand characteristics
Answers participants give in lab studies and usually don’t want to let the researcher downs and wants to appear helpful and attentive
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What is often the case that participants do if they don’t know the answer to the question
They use especially with yes or no questions
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Why are demand characteristics bad
Lower validity of results
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony anxiety
What is anxiety
State of emotional and physical arousal including worried thoughts, tension, increased heart rate, sweatiness
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony anxiety
What is a main criticism of EWT research for anxiety
Often uses artificial scenarios that have no emotional involvement for witnesses however real life events such as violent crimes often have high anxiety content which can greatly effect recall
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony anxiety
What overall impact does anxiety have on recall
Has strong emotional and physical effects and is not clear whether these effects male EWT better or worse
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony anxiety
What is an area of special interest for anxiety having a negative effect on ewt
Degree to which anxiety might divert attention away from the important aspects of an event being witnesses
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony anxiety
What weapons effect
Anxiety can divert attention from important features of a situation
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony anxiety
Who studied weapons effect
Loftus et al
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony anxiety
What did Loftus et al do
Found if a person carrying a weapon witness focu on weapon rather than face
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony anxiety
How does the weapon effect affect ewt
Negatively effects ability to recall facial details of armed criminals
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony anxiety
How can anixety have a positive effect on recall
Stress of witnessing crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body so the fight or flight response is triggered which increases out alertness and improves our memory of event and cues
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony anxiety
What showed the positive effect of anxiety on ewt
Yuille and Cutdshall
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What did yuille and Cuthshall do
13 participants witnessed shop owner shoot a thief dead and police interviews conducted straight after then interviews held 4-5 months after incident
Rated how stressed they felt at time on a 7 point scale
Interviews compared
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Findings of Yuille and Cutshall
Witnesses who reported highest levels of stress were the most accurate (88%) compared to 75% for lower stress participants
Shows increased stress lead to greater accuracy in detail
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony anxiety
What did Yerkes and Dobson make
Inverted-U hypothesis
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony anxiety
What is the inverted-U hypothesis
Relationship between emotional arousal and performance of recall acuracy applied to EWT
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony anxiety
What does the inverted-u hypothesis show
Lower levels of anxiety produce lower levels of recall accuracy
Memory becomes more accurate as anxiety increases
However becomes a point where the optimum level of anxiety is reached which is maximum accuracy
If any more anxiety experiences, recall of event declines
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What does the inverted-U hy[pthesis sayoverall
Moderate am,punts of anxiety improves detail and accuracy of memory recall up to an optional point
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Factors affecting eyewitness testimony anxiety
Has findings from research supported the inverted-u hypothesis
Findings have been used to investigate whether its true but difficult to reach conclusions
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1 strength
Support from studies
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What study supports anxiety affecting ewt
Loftus et al
Yuille and cutshall
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How does Loftus et al suppport anxiety effect
Anxiety reduce effective ness of recall because diverts attention
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What does yuille and cutshall support
Increased anxiety led to greater accuracy in recal so positive impact
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Why is support from studies a strength
Increases validity
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3 weaknesses
Field studes lack control
Ethical issues
Inverted-u hypothesis too simplistic
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How is a lot of research for EWT done
Researchers often interview real life eyewitnesses after the event
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What can happen that researchers have nit control over
Post event discussion, accounts seen in media
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Why is this a limitation of field research
Because it possible that extraneous variable may be responsible for the accuracy of recall
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Why is this a weakness for effects of anxiety
Effects may be overwhelmed by these other factors and may be impossible to asses by time the participants are interviewed
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What is risky to do it participants
Creating anxiety in them
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Why is research into anxiety affecting ewt potentionally unethical
Because it may subject people to psychological harm purely for the purpose of research
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Why is ethical issue important
Questions need for research when real life events are so beneficial and a cost analysis may need to be done of a lack of control in field studes which are more ethical vs more control and less ethical when an event is staged
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Is anxiety easy to measure and why
Very difficult to define or measure accurately as it has many elements- cognitive, behavioural, emotional and physical
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Which of the elements of anxiety does the invtered-u explanation only assume has an impact
Physical arousal
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Why is the inverted-u explanation too oversimplifying
Other factors also may have a mediating effect on how anxiety affects the accuracy of recall such as age
As individuals react difficult, personality probably plays a role too
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The cognitive interview
What is the real life application of info leant about nature of memory
Cognitive interview
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The cognitive interview
What is the generals aim
Increase accuracy of memories and the amount of accurate detail produced
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The cognitive interview
What is it based off
Tulving idea that there are several retrieval paths to each memory and information not available through one pathway maybe accessible through another
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The cognitive interview
What are the four main techniques
Report everything
Reinstate context (mentally)
Reverse order
Change perspective
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The cognitive interview
What does report everything mean
Witnesses encouraged to include every single detail of event even if irrelevant incomplete or lacks confident
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The cognitive interview
Why report everything
Seemingly trivial details may be important and may trigger other important memories
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The cognitive interview
What is reinstating the context based on
Encoding specificity principle within retrieval failure
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The cognitive interview
How is reinstating the context done
Witness should return to original crime scene in their mind
Imagine the environment such as weather or what they can see
Remember their emotions eg feeling
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The cognitive interview
What does reverse the order mean
Events should be recalled in different chronological order to original sequence
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The cognitive interview
Why is reversing the order done
To prevent people reporting schemas and expectations of how the event must have happened rather than actual event s and prevents dishonesty
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The cognitive interview
What is change perspective
Should recall the incident from other perspectives eg from perpetrators
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The cognitive interview
Why is changing perspective done
Disrupt effect of expectation and schema on recall
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The cognitive interview
What is the enhanced cognitive interview
Amended version of the CI developed some additional elements focused on the social Dynamics of the interaction seeking to build a trusting relationship between the interviewer and witness improving communication
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The cognitive interview
Features of the enhanced cognitive inteview
interviewer not distracting the witness with unnecessary interruptions/questions
The witness controlling the flow of information
This is achieved by asking open-ended questions
The interviewer knowing when to establish eye contact and when to relinquish it
Getting the witness to speak slowly
Participants being reminded to ‘report everything’ and not to guess if details are unknown - use the ‘don’t know’ option when necessary, in order to reduce confabulations (false memories)
The interviewer asks about the information recalled using focused memory techniques – asking the witnesses to concentrate on mental images of the memory e.g. a person’s face to help guide recall
Reducing anxiety in witnesses
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Strengths
Some elements maybe more valuable than others
Support for the effective ness of cognitive interview
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What has been found about the valuavbilty of CI elements
Using combination of report everything and reinstate context produced better recall than any of the other elements so some aspects are more useful than others
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Why’s this finding a strength
Suggests that atleast these two elements should be used to improve police interviewing of the eyewitnes even if the full CI is and used
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Why is thus good for CI
Increases credibility off the CI amongst police officers
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The cognitive interview ao3
What shows suppprt for the effectiveness of CI
Geiselman et al
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What did Geiselman et al find
CI produces more accurate detailed memories than the standard police interview technique and interviews conducted under hypnosis
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What does this show about the effectiveness
Relatively effective
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Why is this a strength
Highlights real practical benefits to the police of using the CI and shows that it gives police a greater chance of catching and charging criminals which benefits society as a whole
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2 weaknesses
CI creates and incense in inaccurate information
Comparisons with standard police interviews isn’t early
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Why does CI increase inaccurate info
Although aims to increase correct information remembers the recall o incorrect info may also be increases
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The cognitive interview ao3
What shows an CI increase in inaccurate information
Kohnken et al
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The cognitive interview ao3
What did kohnken et al find
81% iincease in correct info but also 61% increase in incorrect info when the ECI was compared to a standard police interview
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The cognitive interview ao3
Why is it hard to compare CI with standard police interviews
Police interview techniques are not standard
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What different techniques ar used in standard police interviews
Eg just asking what can you recall to during specific questions
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Why is this a weakness
Not clear how much more effective CI is
