Chapter 1

Question 1

general definition of learning

Answer 1

biological process that facilitates adaptions to one’s environment

Question 2

basic physiological functions (breathing) are accomplished without much _________ interaction

Answer 2

environment

Question 3

adaptive functions (ex. finding food, dating, etc.) require behavior adjustments over ____

Answer 3

time

Question 4

learning can be … (2 things)

Answer 4

acquisition of new behaviors (ex. driving)

change in frequency of previous behaviors (ex. going from exercising once in a while to 3 times a week)
- can be an increase or decrease in frequency

Question 5

learning is rooted in __________

Answer 5

philosophy

Question 6

before Descartes, human behavior was considered ____ ____

Answer 6

free will

Question 7

Descartes observed many behaviors seemed to be ________

Answer 7

involuntary

Question 8

Descartes then termed the word “_______”, which is a combination of involuntary and voluntary human behaviors

Answer 8

dualism

Question 9

Involuntary behaviors that consist of automatic reactions to external stimuli are called

Answer 9

reflexes

Question 10

sensory input is “_______” in response in the Descartes’ reflex arc

Answer 10

reflected

Question 11

Descartes suggested most behaviors are ______ reflexes

Answer 11

mental

Question 12

involuntary human and all animal behaviors are considered _________ while voluntary human behaviors are considered _______

Answer 12

reflexes; free will

Question 13

what step is taken out of the Descartes’ reflex arc for animals?

Answer 13

the mind

Question 14

what was an important addition in the Descartes’ reflex arc?

Answer 14

the brain

Question 15

2 important empiricists

Answer 15

John Locke and Thomas Hobbes

Question 16

John Locke

Answer 16

took umbrage with free will

believed all ideas were acquired through experience after birth (Tabula Rasa - clean slate)

All human behavior is involuntary over time and no divinity present

Question 17

Thomas Hobbes

Answer 17

accepted voluntary vs. involuntary but believed that the mind operated predictably

Hedonism: pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain, purpose was to predict behavior

Question 18

empiricists believed all ideas originate from ____ _______

Answer 18

sense experience (both simple and complex)

Question 19

complex ideas form as simple sensations combine by _________

Answer 19

associations

Question 20

Rules of Associations, proposed by Aristotle, consist of what 3 terms? Which has received the most attention/support?

Answer 20

contiguity - received most attention/support

similarity

contrast

Question 21

Contiguity and example

Answer 21

if 2 events/things repeatedly occur together in time or space, they will become associated

ex. thunder and lightning

Question 22

similarity and example

Answer 22

2 events/things will become associated if they are similar in some respect

ex. hotdogs and hamburgers

Question 23

contrast and example

Answer 23

2 events/things will become associate if they are different in some characteristic

ex. cats and dogs, salt and pepper, ketchup and mustard

Question 24

What three parts of Descartes’ reflex arc were dispelled after future research?

Answer 24

Sensory and motor nerves are not the same

Pineal gland is not central to learning

Even reflexes are modifiable

Question 25

While you are out on a jog, a dog appears in your neighbor's yard and begins barking furiously at you. You speed up to avoid it. Now whenever you go past your neighbor's yard you speed up, dog or no dog. This change in behavior is evidence of which rule of association? similarity contiguity contrast contingency

Answer 25

contiguity

Question 26

2 important Russian physiologists

Answer 26

I.M. Sechenov Ivan Pavlov

Question 27

I.M. Sechenov

Answer 27

Complex behaviors can be formed by subconscious stimuli "Small speck of dust can produce a vigorous sneeze" = little things turn into large responses Believed no behavior was truly voluntary

Question 28

Ivan Pavlov

Answer 28

demonstrated not all reflexes are innate **Strong association can create new and lasting behavior**

Question 29

Charles Darwin

Answer 29

expanded upon human/nonhuman overlap proposed evolution of **physical** and **mental** traits (why we learn some things quicker than others)

Question 30

Intelligence

Answer 30

Romanes (1882) ability "to make adjustments, or modify old ones, in accordance with the results of its own individual experience" this is similar to the general definition of learning!

Question 31

functional neurology

Answer 31

key behavioral functions are governed by nervous system "All behavior is a reflection of brain function"

Question 32

Dollard and Miller (1950)

Answer 32

"Hypothesis that people have all learning capacity of rats" ... ex. taste aversion, maze learning this assumption is probably true in most cases Animal models should be relevant to human behavior, also know as face validity

Question 33

Benefits of animal models

Answer 33

simplicity control cost effective specific - particular question is being addressed and know the animal is good at it (ex. Rats and lever pressing)

Question 34

Dangers of animal models

Answer 34

overgeneralization - everything we see in animals isn't the same as humans inappropriate - wouldn't use color-blind organism to study color unwarranted - ethical considerations

Question 35

Formal definition of learning

Answer 35

an enduring change in mechanisms of behavior involving specific stimuli and/or responses that results from prior experience with those or similar stimuli and responses

Question 36

Enduring change: some changes in behavior are too brief to be learning, such as:

Answer 36

fatigue - exhaustion is not learning change in stimulus conditions - an abrupt change in conditions may alter behavior (ex. quiet in class but students are likely to talk if the lights go out suddenly) altered motivational state - menstrual cycle can temporarily change behavior, results can vary if organism is full vs. hungry

Question 37

Mechanisms of behavior: learning is not a change in an organism's actions at one time or a performance:

Answer 37

subject to alteration by opportunity and motivation - ex. singing in shower vs. singing in front of a group mechanisms of behavior can be determined only with **control groups across time** - experimental side, correct designs of study being implemented

Question 38

Results from prior experience in learning definition pertains to:

Answer 38

enduring changes may occur without prior experience ex. changes due to maturation do not satisfy learning, such as growing out of the Rooting reflex (turning towards cheek that is being touched) maturation and learning often co-occur

Question 39

4 causal mechanisms of learning

Answer 39

efficient material formal final

Question 40

Efficient cause

Answer 40

**training procedure** with specific stimulus and responses that cause a behavioral change Shown example in class with Jim's altoid prank on Dwight

Question 41

Material cause

Answer 41

**physical changes** in the brain that mediate learning (biology cause)

Question 42

formal cause

Answer 42

**theories** of learning at the behavioral level

Question 43

final cause

Answer 43

**evolutionary mechanisms** that contribute to the organism's reproductive fitness ex. why rats learn to not eat something after only eating it once