Chapter 1: Biology and Behaviour Flashcards
(166 cards)
1
Q
_______________ developed the doctrine of phrenology.
A
Franz Gall
2
Q
________________’s basic idea is that if a particular trait was well-developed, then the part of the brain responsible for that trait would expand.
A
Doctrine of Phrenology
3
Q
_______________ was the first person to study the functions of the major sections of the brain. He did this by extirpation on rabbits and pigeons.
A
Pierre Flourens
4
Q
______________, also known as _____________, is when various parts of the brain are surgically removed and the behavioural consequences are observed.
A
- Extirpation
- Ablation
5
Q
_______________, known as the founder of American psychology, studied how the mind adapts to the environment (functionalism).
A
William James
6
Q
________________ studies how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments.
A
Functionalism
7
Q
______________ is another important name in functionalism. He believed that psychology should focus on the study of the organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to the environment.
A
John Dewey
8
Q
_______________ added to the knowledge of physiology by examining the behavioural deficits of people with brain damage.
A
Paul Broca
9
Q
____________________ was the first to measure the speed of a nerve impulse. He provided one of the earliest measurable links between psychology and physiology.
A
Hermann von Helmholtz
10
Q
__________________ first inferred the existence of synapses. He thought that synaptic transmission was an electrical process.
A
Sir Charles Sherrington
11
Q
There are three kinds of nerve cells in the nervous system: _____________ neurons, _____________ neurons, _______________.
A
- Sensory neurons
- Motor neurons
- Interneurons
12
Q
Neural circuits called _____________ control reflexive behaviour.
A
Reflex arcs
13
Q
The _______________ (______) is composed of the brain and spinal cord.
A
Central nervous system (CNS)
14
Q
The ________________ (_____), in contrast, is made up of nerve tissue and fibers outside the brain and spinal cord.
A
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
15
Q
The peripheral nervous system includes all 31 pairs of nerves emanating from the spinal cord, which are called _______________, and 12 pairs of nerves emanating directly from the brain, called _______________.
A
- Spinal nerves
- Cranial nerves
16
Q
The peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into the _______________ and _________________nervous systems.
A
- Somatic nervous system
- Autonomic nervous system
17
Q
The _______________ consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints, and muscles.
A
Somatic nervous system
18
Q
_____________ neurons transmit information toward the CNS through afferent fibers.
A
Sensory neurons
19
Q
_____________ impulses travel from the CNS back to the body along efferent fibers.
A
Motor impulses
20
Q
The ________________ (_______) generally regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretions.
A
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
21
Q
The _______________ manages the involuntary muscles associated with many internal organs and glands.
A
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
22
Q
The _______________ also helps regulate body temperature by activating sweating or piloerection, depending on whether the body is too hot or too cold.
A
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
23
Q
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) has two subdivisions: the _____________ nervous system and the _______________ nervous system.
A
- Sympathetic nervous system
- Parasympathetic nervous system
24
Q
The main role of the ____________ nervous system is to conserve energy.
A
Parasympathetic nervous system
25
The _____________ nervous system is associated with resting and sleeping states, and acts to reduce heart rate and constrict the bronchi.
Parasympathetic nervous system
26
The _______________ nervous system is responsible for managing digestion by increasing peristalsis and exocrine secretions.
Parasympathetic nervous system
27
______________ is the neurotransmitter responsible for parasympathetic responses in the body.
Acetylcholine
28
The _________________ nervous system is activated by stress.
Sympathetic nervous system
29
The brain is covered with a thick, three-layered sheath of connective tissue collectively called the ______________.
Meninges
30
The outer layer of connective tissue covering the brain is the ______________, and is connected directly to the skull.
Dura mater
31
The middle layer of the connective tissue covering the brain is a fibrous, weblike structure called _________________.
Arachnoid mater
32
The inner layer of the connective tissue connected directly to the brain is known as the _______________.
Pia mater
33
The meninges help protect the brain by keeping it anchored within the skull, and the meninges also resorb ___________________, which is the aqueous solution that nourishes the brain and spinal cord and provides a protective cushion.
Cerebrospinal fluid
34
Cerebrospinal fluid is produced by specialized cells that line the _____________ (internal cavities) of the brain.
Ventricles
35
The human brain can be divided into three basic parts: the ____________, the _____________, and the _______________.
- Hindbrain
- Midbrain
- Forebrain
36
The hindbrain and midbrain together form the ________________, which is the most primitive region of the brain.
Brainstem
37
The forebrain developed later than hindbrain and midbrain. It includes the _______________, a group of neural structures primarily associated with emotion and memory.
Limbic system
38
The most recent evolutionary development of the human brain is the _______________, which is the outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres.
Cerebral cortex
39
Forebrain structures:
- ________________: complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioural processes
- ________________: movement
- ________________: emotion and memory
- ________________: sensory relay station
- ________________: hunger and thirst; emotions
- Cerebral cortex
- Basal ganglia
- Limbic system
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
40
Hindbrain structures:
- ______________: refined motor movements
- ______________: heart, vital reflexes (vomiting, coughing)
- ______________: arousal and alertness
- ______________: communication within the brain, breathing
- Cerebellum
-Medulla oblongata
- Reticular formation
- Pons
41
Midbrain structures:
- ______________ and ________________: sensorimotor reflexes
- Inferior colliculi
- Superior colliculi
42
Located where the brain meets the spinal cord, the ______________ (______________) controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes such as sleeping and waking.
Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)
43
During embryonic development, the rhombencephalon divides to form the ________________ (which becomes the medulla oblongata) and the ______________ (which becomes the pons and cerebellum).
- Myelencephalon
- Metencephalon
44
In the developed brain, the _________________ is a lower brain structure that is responsible for regulating vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion.
Medulla oblongata
45
The ________ lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla.
Pons
46
At the top of the hindbrain, mushrooming out of the back of the pons, is the _______________, a structure that helps maintain posture and balance and coordinates body movements.
Cerebellum
47
Alcohol impairs the functioning of the _______________, and consequently affects speech and balance.
Cerebellum
48
Just above the hindbrain is the _____________ (________________), which receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body.
Midbrain (mesencephalon)
49
The ____________ is associated with involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli.
Midbrain
50
There are several prominent nuclei in the midbrain, two of which are collectively called _______________.
Colliculli
51
The _______________ receives visual sensory input, and the ________________ receives sensory information from the auditory system in the midbrain.
- Superior colliculus
- Inferior colliculus
52
The ______________ has a role in reflexive reactions to sudden loud noises.
Inferior colliculus
53
Above the midbrain is the ______________ (_______________), which is associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioural processes.
Forebrain (prosencephalon)
54
During prenatal development, the prosencephalon divides to form the _______________ (which forms the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system).
Telencephalon
55
During prenatal development, the prosencephalon divides to form the _______________ (which forms the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland).
Diencephalon
56
_______________ refers to the study of functions and behaviours associated with specific regions of the brain.
Neuropsychology
57
Electrical activity generated by larger groups of neurons can be studied using an ______________________ (________)
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
58
Another noninvasive mapping procedure is ________________________ (________), which detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain.
Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)
59
_________________ (______), also known as ______________________ (______) scan, in which multiple X-rays are taken at different angles and processed by a computer to produce cross-sectional images of the tissue.
- Computed tomography (CT)
- Computed axial tomography (CAT)
60
___________________ (_____) scan, in which a radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed into the body, and its dispersion and uptake throughout the target tissue is imaged.
Positron emission tomography (PET)
61
__________________ (______), in which a magnetic field that interacts with hydrogen atoms is used to map out hydrogen dense regions of the body.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
62
____________________ (_______), which uses the same base technique as MRI, but specifically measures changes associated with blood flow. It is especially useful for monitoring neural activity, since increased blood flow to a region of the brain is typically coupled with its neuronal activation.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
63
By using electrical stimulation, neurosurgeons can create _____________ maps. An example of this is the electroencephalogram (EEG).
Cortical maps
64
The ______________ is a structure within the forebrain that serves as an important relay station for incoming sensory information, including all senses except for smell.
Thalamus
65
After receiving incoming sensory impulses, the ______________ sorts and transmits them to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex. It is therefore a sensory "way station".
Thalamus
66
The _______________ is a structure within the forebrain that serves homeostatic functions, and is a key player in emotional experiences during high arousal states, aggressive behaviour, and sexual behaviour.
Hypothalamus
67
The hypothalamus is subdivided into the _______________, _______________, and ________________.
- Lateral hypothalamus
- Ventromedial hypothalamus
- Anterior thalamus
68
The ________________ (____) is referred to as the hunger centre because it has special receptors thought to detect when the body needs more food or fluids.
Lateral hypothalamus (LH)
69
The __________________ (______) is identified as the "satiety centre", and provides signals to stop eating.
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
70
The __________________ controls sexual behaviour. It also regulates sleep and body temperature.
Anterior hypothalamus
71
The _______________ is comprised of axonal projections from the hypothalamus and is the site of release for the hypothalamic hormones ___________________ (_________, also called _________________) and _______________.
- Posterior pituitary
- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also called vasopressin)
- Oxytocin
72
The ______________ is the key player in several biological rhythms. It secretes a hormone called _____________, which regulates circadian rhythms.
- Pineal gland
- Melatonin
73
The _______________ coordinate muscle movement as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information (via the extrapyramidal motor system) to the brain and the spinal cord.
Basal ganglia
74
The __________________ gathers information about body position and carries this information to the central nervous system, but does not function directly through motor neurons.
Extrapyramidal system
75
________________ disease is one chronic illness associated with destruction of portions of the basal ganglia. It is characterized by jerky movements and uncontrolled resting tremors.
Parkinson's disease
76
The _______________ comprises a group of interconnected structures looping around the central portion of the brain and is primarily associated with emotion and memory.
Limbic system
77
The ____________ contain one of the primary pleasure centres in the brain.
Septal nuclei
78
The _____________ is a structure that plays an important role in defensive and aggressive behaviours, including fear and rage.
Amygdala
79
The _____________ plays a vital role in learning and memory processes; specifically, it helps consolidate information to form long-term memories, and can redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex.
Hippocampus
80
The hippocampus communicates with other portions of the limbic system through a long projection called the ____________.
Fornix
81
The type of memory loss called _____________ is characterized by not being able to establish new long-term memories, whereas memory for events that occurred before brain injury is usually intact.
Anterograde amnesia
82
The type of memory loss called ______________ refers to memory loss of events that transpired before brain injury.
Retrograde amnesia
83
Due to the connection with the frontal and parietal lobes, the _________________ functions in higher order cognitive processes, including regulation of impulse control and decision making.
Anterior cingulate cortex
84
The outer surface of the brain is called the _______________. It is sometimes called the _____________.
- Cerebral cortex
- Neocortex
85
Rather than having a smooth surface, the cerebral cortex has numerous bumps and folds called __________ and __________, respectively.
- Gyri
- Sulci
86
The cerebrum is divided into two halves, called __________________.
Cerebral hemispheres
87
The surface of the cortex is divided into four lobes - the __________ lobe, ____________ lobe, ___________ lobe, and ____________ lobe.
- Frontal lobe
- Parietal lobe
- Occipital lobe
- Temporal lobe
88
The ______________ is comprised of two basic regions: the prefrontal cortex and the motor cortex.
Frontal lobe
89
The ________________ manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions.
Prefrontal cortex
90
Because the prefrontal cortex integrates information from different cortical regions, the prefrontal cortex is a good example of an ________________, which is an area that integrates input from diverse regions of the brain.
Association area
91
Association areas are generally contrasted with ________________, which perform more rudimentary perpetual and motor tasks.
Projection areas
92
An example of a projection area is the __________________, which is located on the pre central gyrus, just in front of the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes.
Primary motor cortex
93
The function of the _________________ is to initiate voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles.
Primary motor cortex
94
The neurons in the motor cortex are arranged systemically according to the parts of the body to which they are connected. This organizational pattern can be visualized through the ___________________.
Motor homunculus
95
An important part of the frontal lobe is ________________, which is vitally important for speech production. It is usually found in only one hemisphere.
Broca's area
96
The _____________ is located to the rear of the frontal lobe.
Parietal lobe
97
The _________________ is located on the postcentral gyrus (just behind the central sulcus) and is involved in somatosensory information processing.
Somatosensory cortex
98
Despite certain differences, the somatosensory cortex and motor cortex are very closely related. In fact, they are so interrelated they sometimes are described as a single unit: the ________________.
Sensorimotor cortex
99
The occipital lobes, at the very rear of the brain, contain the ______________, which is sometimes called the _____________.
- Visual cortex
- Striated cortex
100
The ______________ contain the auditory cortex and the Wernicke's area.
Temporal lobes
101
The _______________ is the primary site of most sound processing, including speech, music, and other sound information.
Auditory cortex
102
_______________ is associated with language reception and comprehension.
Wernicke's area
103
In most cases, one side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body. In such cases, we say a cerebral hemisphere communicates _________________.
Contralaterally
104
In other cases (for instance, hearing), cerebral hemispheres communicate with the same side of the body. In such cases, the hemispheres communicate ______________.
Ipsilaterally
105
The ______________ (usually the left) is primarily analytic in function, making it well-suited for managing details.
Dominant hemisphere
106
Language production (____________) and language comprehension (______________) are primarily driven by the dominant hemisphere.
- Broca's area
- Wernicke's area
107
The _______________ (usually the right) is associated with intuition, creativity, music recognition, and spacial processing.
Nondominant hemisphere
108
A ________________ is a chemical used by neurons to send signals to other neurons.
Neurotransmitter
109
A drug that mimics the action of some neurotransmitter is called an _____________.
Agonist
110
Drugs can act by blocking the action of neurotransmitters, and such drugs are called ______________.
Antagonists
111
______________ is a neurotransmitter found in both the central and peripheral nervous system.
Acetylcholine
112
________________ neurotransmitter is associated with voluntary muscle control (CNS), attention and alertness (PNS).
Acetylcholine
113
Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine are three closely related neurotransmitters known as _______________.
Catecholamines
114
Due to similarities in their molecular composition, the three transmitters (epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine) are classified as ____________ for ____________.
- Monoamines
- Biogenic amines
115
_____________ (____________) and _____________ (____________) are involved in flight-or-flight responses (sympathetic nervous system), controlling alertness and wakefulness.
- Epinephrine (adrenaline)
- Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
116
In the sympathetic nervous system, ________________ more commonly acts at a local level as a neurotransmitter, whereas ______________ is more often secreted from the adrenal medulla to act systematically as a hormone.
- Norepinephrine
- Epinephrine
117
_____________ is a catecholamine that plays an important role in movement and posture.
Dopamine
118
High concentrations of ____________ are normally found in the basal ganglia, which help smooth movements and maintain postural stability.
Dopamine
119
Imbalances in dopamine transmission have been found to play a role in ________________.
Schizophrenia
120
An important theory about the origin of schizophrenia is called the ____________________. It argues that delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from an oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain.
Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
121
______________ disease is associated with a loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia.
Parkinson's disease
122
______________ is generally thought to play roles in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming.
Serotonin
123
Serotonin is classified as a ___________ or _______________ neurotransmitter.
- Monoamine
- Biogenic amine
124
The neurotransmitter _________________ (_________) produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials and is thought to play an important role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain.
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
125
__________ serves as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS by increasing chloride influx into the neuron. This hypepolarizes the postsynaptic membrane, similar to the function of GABA.
Glycine
126
______________ acts as a neurotransmitter in the CNS. In contrast to glycine, however, it is an excitatory neurotransmitter.
Glutamate
127
The synaptic action of _______________ (also called _________________) involves a more complicated chain of events in the postsynaptic cell than that of regular neurotransmitters. They are relatively slow and have longer effects on the postsynaptic cell than neurotransmitters.
Neuromodulators (neuropeptides)
128
The ______________, which are natural painkillers produced in the brain, are the most important peptides to know.
Endorphins
129
Endorphins (and their relatives, _______________) have actions similar to morphine or other opioids in the body.
Enkephalins
130
The endocrine system is the other internal communication network in the body, it uses chemical messengers called _____________.
Hormones
131
The endocrine system is somewhat (faster?/slower?)_______________ than the nervous system because hormones travel to their target destinations through the bloodstream.
Slower
132
The ______________ links the endocrine and nervous systems, and regulates the hormonal function of the pituitary gland.
Hypothalamuus
133
The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are spatially close to each other, and control is maintained through endocrine release of hormones into the ____________________ that directly connects the two organs.
Hypophyseal portal system
134
The ________________, sometimes referred to as the "master" gland, is located at the base of the brain and is divided into two parts: anterior and posterior.
Pituitary gland
135
It is the ________________ that is the "master" because it releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands elsewhere in the body.
Anterior pituitary
136
The ______________ are located on top of the kidneys and are divided into two parts: the adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex.
Adrenal glands
137
The _______________ releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of the sympathetic nervous system.
Adrenal medulla
138
The ______________ produces many hormones called ______________, including the stress hormone cortisol.
- Adrenal cortex
- Corticosteroids
139
The adrenal cortex contributes to sexual functioning by producing sex hormones, such as _______________ and ______________.
- Testosterone
- Estrogen
140
The ___________ are the sex glands of the body - ovaries in females and testes in males.
Gonads
141
______________ is genetically programmed as a result of evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience.
Innate behaviour
142
________________ are not based on heredity but instead are based on experience and environment.
Learned behaviours
143
______________ is the extent to which a trait or behaviour positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species, thus leading to adaptation through natural selection.
Adaptive value
144
____________ is the influence of inherited characteristics on behaviour.
Nature
145
____________ refers to the influence of environment and physical surroundings on behaviour.
Nurture
146
_____________ rely on the fact that genetically related individuals are more similar genotypical than unrelated individuals.
Family studies
147
Twin studies, comparing concordance rates for a trait between _____________ (_____; identical) and _____________ (_____; fraternal) twins, are better able to distinguish the relative effects of shared environment and genetics.
- Monozygotic (MZ; identical)
- Dizygotic (DZ; fraternal)
148
_________________ refer to the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait.
Concordance rates
149
The specific periods in development where children are particularly susceptible to environmental factors, called _______________.
Critical periods
150
_______________ occurs when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds.
Neurulation
151
Cells at the leading edge of the neural fold are called the ______________, and will migrate throughout the body to form disparate tissues, including dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes (pigment-producing cells), and calcitonin-producing cells of the thyroid.
Neural crest
152
The remainder of the furrow closes to form the _____________, which will ultimately form the central nervous system (CNS).
Neural tube
153
The neural tube has an ____________, which differentiates into sensory neurons, and a _____________, which differentiates into motor neurons.
- Alar plate
- Basal plate
154
The fetus is attached to the uterine wall and placenta by the ______________.
Umbilical cord
155
The ____________ transmits food, oxygen, and water to the fetus while returning water and waste to the mother.
Placenta
156
A _________ is a behaviour that occurs in response to a given stimulus without higher cognitive input.
Reflex
157
While motor and startle reflexes exist in adults, infants have a number of ________________ that disappear with age.
Primitive reflexes
158
The ______________ is the automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek - such as a nipple during feeding.
Rooting reflex
159
Infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting their arms and crying. One such reflex is called the _____________.
Moro reflex
160
The ______________ causes the toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated.
Babinski reflex
161
The ______________ occurs when infants close their fingers around an object placed in the hand.
Grasping reflex
162
_______________ skills incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion, such as sitting, crawling, and walking.
Gross motor skills
163
______________ skills involve the smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes, providing more specific and delicate movement.
Fine motor skills
164
At birth, the parental figure becomes the centre of the infant's world, and as the infant ages, ______________ (a fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals) and ______________ (a fear of being separated from the parental figure) develop at approximately seven months and one year, respectively.
- Stranger anxiety
- Separation anxiety
165
At two years of age, play style develops into _______________, in which children will play alongside each other without influencing each other's behaviour.
Parallel play
166
Several abilities and behaviours that are expected to emerge at particular times in a person's development are known as ________________________.
Development milestones
