Chapter 4: Cognition, Consciousness, and Language Flashcards
(182 cards)
1
Q
The study of ______________ looks at our brains process and react to the incredible information overload presented to us by the world.
A
Cognition
2
Q
One prominent theory, Paivio’s __________________ theory, states that both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information.
A
Dual-coding theory
3
Q
The word “tree” can recall some information, and a picture of a tree can recall the same information. This is an example of theory ______________.
A
Dual-coding theory
4
Q
The ___________________ has four key components, or pillars.
A
Information processing model
5
Q
One pillar of the information processing model:
- _______________ requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli.
A
Thinking
6
Q
One pillar of the information processing model:
- _______________ must be analyzed by the brain (rather than responded to automatically) to be useful in decision making.
A
Stimuli
7
Q
One pillar of the information processing model:
- _______________ made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (also called situational modifications).
A
Decisions
8
Q
One pillar of the information processing model:
- _______________ solving is dependent not only on the person’s cognitive but also on the context and complexity of the problem.
A
Problem
9
Q
___________________ is the development of one’s ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan.
A
Cognitive development
10
Q
_______________ was one of the most influential figures in developmental psychology.
A
Jean Piaget
11
Q
______________’s model of cognitive development proposes that there are qualitative differences between the way that children and adults think, and that these differences can be explained by dividing the life span into four stages oof cognitive development.
A
Jean Piaget
12
Q
Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development:
- ______________
- ______________
- ______________
- ______________
A
- Sensorimotor
- Preoperational
- Concrete operational
- Formal operational
13
Q
Jean Piaget referred to _____________ as organized patterns of behaviour and thought. It can include a concept, a behaviour, or a sequence of events.
A
Schemata
14
Q
Piaget theorized that new information that has to be placed into different schemata via the process of ________________.
A
Adaptation
15
Q
According to Piaget, adaptation to information comes about by two complementary processes: ________________ and _________________.
A
- Assimilation
- Accommodation
16
Q
________________ is the process of classifying new information into existing schemata.
A
Assimilation
17
Q
________________ is the process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new information.
A
Accommodation
18
Q
In first stage in Piaget’s model, the _______________ stage, a child learns to manipulate the environment in order to meet physical needs and learns to coordinate sensory input with motor actions.
A
Sensorimotor stage
19
Q
To explore their surroundings, infants in the sensorimotor stage begin to exhibit two types of behaviour patterns called ________________, named for their repetitive natures.
A
Circular reactions
20
Q
___________________ are repetitions of body movements that originally occurred by chance, such as sucking the thumb.
A
Primary circular reactions
21
Q
__________________ occur when the manipulation is focused on something outside the body, such as repeatedly throwing toys from a high chair.
A
Secondary circular reactions
22
Q
The key milestone that ends the sensorimotor stage is the development of _________________, which is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view.
A
Object permanence
23
Q
Object permanence marks the beginning of _________________, in which the child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events.
A
Representational thought
24
Q
The __________________ stage lasts from two to seven years of age and is characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism.
A
Preoperational stage
25
_________________ refers to the ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination.
Symbolic thinking
26
_______________ refers to the inability to imagine what another person may think or feel.
Egocentrism
27
The preoperational stage includes the inability to grasp the concept of ________________, which is the understanding that a physical amount remains the same, even if there is a change in shape or appearance.
Conservation
28
_______________ is the tendency to focus on one aspect of a phenomenon, for example the number of slices (rather than the actual quantity of the single slice compared to the two slices), while ignoring other important elements.
Centration
29
___________________ stage, which lasts from about 7-11 years of age, children can understand conservation and consider the perspectives of others.
Concrete operational stage
30
At __________________ stage is when the loss of egocentrism happens.
Concrete operational stage
31
The _________________ stage starts around 11years of age, and is marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas.
Formal operational stage
32
The ability to mentally manipulate variables in a number of ways, generally within the scope of scientific experiments, is an important component of the formal operational stage, and is termed ___________________.
Hypothetical reasoning
33
________________, a prominent educational psychologist, proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is children's internalization of their culture, including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language.
Lev Vygotsky
34
________________ consists of solving new or novel problems, possibly using creative methods.
Fluid intelligence
35
__________________ is more related to solving problems using acquired knowledge, and often can be procedural.
Crystallized intelligence
36
___________________ was shown to peak in early adulthood but decline with age, while ___________________ peaked in middle adulthood and remains stable with age.
- Fluid intelligence
- Crystallized intelligence
37
Decline in intellectual abilities in adulthood has been linked with how long an older adult retains the ability to function in what are known as __________________ (eating, bathing, toileting, dressing, and ambulation).
Activities of daily living
38
Disorders and conditions that are characterized by a general loss of cognitive function are collectively known as _____________.
Dementia
39
The most common cause of dementia is _________________.
Alzheimer's disease
40
________________ is rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical (non psychological) causes.
Delirium
41
______________ is the tendency to approach similar problems in the same way.
Mental set
42
________________ can be defined as the inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner.
Functional fixedness
43
_______________ is a less sophisticated type of problem solving in which various solutions are tried until one is found that seems to work.
Trial-and-error
44
An _____________ is a formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem.
Algorithm
45
_____________ (____________)____________ starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given.
Deductive (top-down) reasoning
46
_____________(_____________)_____________ seeks to create a theory via generalizations.
Inductive (bottom-up) reasoning
47
_____________ are simplified principles used to make decisions; they are colloquially called "rules of thumb".
Heuristics
48
The ________________ is a heuristic used when we base the likelihood of an event on how easily examples of that event come to mind.
Availability heuristic
49
The ___________________ involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category.
Representativeness heuristic
50
When a potential solution to a problem fails during testing, this solution should be discarded. This is known as the ________________: the evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work.
Disconfirmation principle
51
________________ is the tendency to focus on information that fits an individual's beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them.
Confirmation bias
52
Confirmation bias contributes to _________________, or a tendency too erroneously interpret one's decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible.
Overconfidence
53
An additional type of bias is _______________, which is the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to predict the outcome of events that already happened.
Hindsight bias
54
The phenomenon ________________ refers to the inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary.
Belief perseverance
55
_____________ can be defined as the ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence.
Intuition
56
An emergency room physician, over the course of seeing thousands of patients with chest pain, may develop a keen sense of which patients are actually having a heart attack without even looking at an electrocardiogram (EFK) or a patient's vital signs. This is an example of ____________________________.
Recognition-primed decision model
57
______________ is the subjective experience of a person in a certain situation.
Emotion
58
Howard Gardner's theory of _________________ is one of the most all-encompassing definitions, with at least 8 defined types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist.
Multiple intelligences
59
__________________ is the ability to detect and navigate the moods and motivations of others.
Interpersonal intelligence
60
__________________ centers around being mindful of one's own emotions, strengths, and weaknesses, which can provide clear guidance what role one should take in a group or society.
Intrapersonal intelligence
61
Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of human intelligence defines three subtypes: _____________ intelligence, _____________ intelligence, and _____________ intelligence.
- Analytical intelligence
- Creative intelligence
- Practical intelligence
62
_______________ (by Sternberg) involves the ability to evaluate and reason.
Analytical intelligence
63
_______________ (by Sternberg) is the ability to solve problems using novel methods.
Creative intelligence
64
_______________ (by Sternberg) involves dealing with everyday problems at home or at work.
Practical intelligence
65
The theory of _________________ addresses our emotional awareness in four components: the ability to express and perceive emotions in ourself and others, the ability to comprehend and analyze our emotions, the ability to regulate our emotions, and awareness of how emotions shape our thoughts and decisions.
Emotional intelligence
66
A founding concept behind quantifying intelligence tests is Charles Spearman's "g factor", or __________________ factor.
General intelligence factor
67
The underlying variable of intelligence is often measured with standardized tests that generate an _________________ (______) for the test taker.
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
68
It is useful to know the original formula for calculating IQ:
________________
IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100
69
______________ is a state of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think.
Alertness
70
In the alert state, we also experience a certain level of ________________, which is characterized by physiological reactions such as increased heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure and so on.
Physiological arousal
71
Fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with the ________________ (reticular activation system), a neural structure located in the brainstem, to keep the cortex awake and alert.
Reticular formation
72
Sleep is studied by recording brain wave activity occurring during the course of a night's sleep. This is done with ____________________ (______), which record an average of the electrical patterns within different portions of the brain.
Electroencephalography (EEG)
73
There are four characteristic EEG patterns correlated with different stages of waking and sleeping: __________, __________, __________, and __________ waves.
- Beta
- Alpha
- Theta
- Delta
74
_____________ have a high frequency and occur when the person is alert or attending a mental task that requires concentration.
Beta waves
75
_____________ occur when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed, and are somewhat slower than beta waves.
Alpha waves
76
As soon as you doze off, you enter ___________ (also known as ___________).
- Stage 1
- NREM 1
77
As soon as you doze off, you enter Stage 1 (also known as NREM 1), which is detected on the EEG by the appearance of ____________.
Theta waves
78
As you fall more deeply asleep, you enter ____________ (___________).
Stage 2 (NREM2)
79
In Stage 2 (NREM2), the EEG shows theta waves along with ______________, which are bursts of high-frequency waves.
Sleep spindles
80
In Stage 2 (NREM2), the EEG shows theta waves along with ______________, which are singular high-amplitude waves.
K complexes
81
As you fall even more deeply asleep, you enter Stage 3 (NREM3), also known as ________________ (_______).
Slow-wave sleep (SWS)
82
In Stage 3 (NREM3), EEG activity grows progressively slower until only a few sleep waves per second are seen. These low-frequency, high-voltage sleep waves are called ______________.
Delta waves
83
NREM stands for _____________________.
Non-rapid eye movement sleep
84
Interspersed between cycles of the NREM stages is __________________ (______) sleep.
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
85
REM sleep is also called _________________ because one's heart rate, breathing patterns. and EEG mimic wakefulness, but the individual is still asleep.
Paradoxical sleep
86
The ________________ stage is when dreaming is most likely to occur and is also associated with memory consolidation.
REM sleep
87
A _______________ refers to a single complete progression through the sleep stages.
Sleep cycle
88
Our daily cycle of waking and sleeping is regulated by internally generated rhythms or _________________.
Circadian rhythms
89
Sleepiness can partially be attributed to blood levels of ______________, a serotonin-derived hormone from the _____________ gland.
- Melatonin
- Pineal gland
90
_____________, a steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex, is related to the sleep-wake cycle.
Cortisol
91
Cortisol, a steroid hormone produced in the _________________, is also related to the sleep-wake cycle.
Adrenal cortex
92
Cortisol levels slowly increase during early morning because increasing light causes the release of __________________ (______) from the hypothalamus.
Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)
93
Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) causes release of __________________________ (________) from the anterior pituitary, which stimulates cortisol release.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
94
In the __________________ theory, dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry.
Activation-synthesis theory
95
In the ___________________ theory, dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping.
Problem solving dream theory
96
In the __________________ theory, dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness.
Cognitive process dream theory
97
____________________ seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes.
Neurocognitive models of dreaming
98
Sleep-wake disorders are divided into two categories: _________________ and ________________.
- Dyssomnias
- Parasomnias
99
_______________ refer to disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep, and include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea.
Dyssomnias
100
______________ are abnormal movements or behaviours during sleep, and include night terrors and sleep walking.
Parasomnias
101
______________ is difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.
Insomnia
102
______________ is a condition characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep.
Narcolepsy
103
The symptoms of narcolepsy are unique and include _____________, a loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger.
Cataplexy
104
The symptoms of narcolepsy are unique and include _____________, a sensation of being unable to move despite being awake.
Sleep paralysis
105
The symptoms of narcolepsy are unique and include ________________ and ________________, which are hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening.
- Hypnagogic hallucinations
- Hypnopompic hallucinations
106
Another dyssomnia is _____________, which is an inability to breathe during sleep.
Sleep apnea
107
______________, which are most common in children, are periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep.
Night terrors
108
______________, or ______________, usually occurs during slow-wave sleep (SWS). Some people may eat, talk, have sexual intercourse, or even drive great distances while sleeping with absolutely to recollection of the event.
- Sleepwalking
- Somnambulism
109
________________ can result from as little as one night without sleep, or from multiple nights with poor-quality, short-duration sleep.
Sleep deprivation
110
_______________ can result from as little as one night without sleep, or from multiple nights with poor-quality, short-duration sleep.
Sleep deprivation
111
While one cannot make up for lost sleep, people who are permitted to sleep normally after sleep deprivation often exhibit ________________, an earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal.
REM rebound
112
_____________ can be defined as a state in which a person appears to be in control of normal functions, but is in a highly suggestible state.
Hypnosis
113
Hypnosis starts with _______________, in which the hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject's level of concentration.
Hypnotic induction
114
______________ usually involves quieting of the mind for some purpose, whether spiritual, religious, or related to stress reduction.
Meditation
115
______________ reduce nervous system activity, resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety.
Depressants
116
_____________ increases activity of the GABA receptor, a chloride channel that causes hyperpolarization of the membrane.
Alcohol
117
Excessive consumption of alcohol may be associated with a notable a lack of self-control known as _______________, which occurs because the renters of the brain that prevent inappropriate behaviour are also depressed.
Disinhibition
118
______________ increases dopamine levels, causing a sense of mild euphoria.
Alcohol
119
One of the main effects on logical reasoning when consuming alcohol is the inability to recognize consequences of actions, creating a short-sighted view of the world called _______________.
Alcohol myopia
120
Long-term consequences of alcoholism include cirrhosis and liver failure, pancreatic damage, gastric or duodenal ulcers, gastrointestinal cancer, and brain disorders including __________________ syndrome, caused by a deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) and characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills.
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
121
_____________ tend to depress central nervous system activity, resulting in feelings of calm, relaxation, and drowsiness.
Sedatives
122
Two types of sedatives are _____________ and ________________.
- Barbiturates
- Benzodiazepines
123
______________ were historically used as anxiety-reducing (anxiolytic) and sleep medications.
Barbiturates
124
__________________, have mostly replaced barbiturates, which are less prone to overdose.
Benzodiazepines
125
_______________ include amobarbital and phenobarbital.
Barbiturates
126
_______________ include alprazolam, lorazepam, diazepam, and clonazepam.
Benzodiazepines
127
_____________ cause an increase in arousal in the nervous system.
Stimulants
128
______________ cause increased arousal by increasing release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake.
Amphetamines
129
Similar to amphetamines, _____________ also acts on dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin synapses, but it decreases reuptake of the neurotransmitters instead.
Cocaine
130
______________ has anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties, and is therefore sometimes used in surgeries in highly vascularized areas, such as the nose and throat.
Cocaine
131
___________ is a form of cocaine that can be smoked.
Crack
132
_____________ acts as a hallucinogen combined with an amphetamine.
Ecstasy
133
______________ and _____________ are types of narcotics, also known as painkillers.
- Opiates
- Opioids
134
Derived from the poppy plant, ___________ has been used and abused for centuries.
Opium
135
Naturally occurring forms, called ____________, include morphine and codeine.
Opiates
136
Semisynthetic derivatives, called ____________, include oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin.
Opioids
137
______________, or _______________, was originally created as a substitute for morphine.
- Heroin
- Diacetylmorphine
138
Treatment for opioid addiction may include use of ______________, a long-acting opioid with lower risk of overdose.
Methadone
139
__________________ are drugs which typically cause introspection, distortions of reality and fantasy, and enhancement of sensory experiences.
Hallucinogens
140
Examples of hallucinogens include ___________________ (_______).
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
141
_______________ primarily refers to the leaves and flowers of two plant species: Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica.
Marijuana
142
The active chemical in marijuana is known as ___________________ (_______).
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
143
THC exerts its effects by acting at _______________ receptors, _____________ receptors, and _____________ receptors.
- Cannabinoid receptors
- Glycine receptors
- Opioid receptors
144
Drug addiction is highly related to the ___________________ pathway, one of the four dopaminergic pathways in the brain.
Mesolimbic reward pathway
145
The mesolimbic reward pathway includes the _______________ (_______), the __________________ (_______), and the connection between them called the ____________________ (_______).
- Nucleus accumbens (NAc)
- Ventral tegmental area (VTA)
- Medial forebrain bundle (MFB)
146
This pathway is normally involved in motivation and emotional response, and its activation accounts for the positive reinforcement of substance use.
Mesolimbic reward pathway
147
Attention refers to concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment, or ______________.
Sensorium
148
_________________ is focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli.
Selective attention
149
Imagine you are at a party, talking with a friend. However, your ears perk up when you hear your name spoken halfway across the room. This is sometimes called the _____________________ and is evidence of a different interpretation of selective attention.
Cocktail party phenomenon
150
_________________ tests can test selective attention because participants are asked to filter out information from the unattended ear.
Dichotic listening tests
151
_______________ is the ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time.
Divided attention
152
Familiar or routine actions can be performed with ___________________, which permits the brain to focus on other tasks with divided attention.
Automatic processing
153
Whether it is written, spoken, or signed, ______________ is fundamental to the creation of communities.
Language
154
There are five basic components of language: ________________, _______________, _______________, _______________, and _______________.
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Semantics
- Syntax
- Pragmatics
155
_____________ refers to the actual sound of language.
Phonology
156
There are about 40 speech sounds or ______________ in English, although many more exist in other languages.
Phonemes
157
When a language has subtle differences in speech sounds that represent a change in meaning, children learn to distinguish those phonemes; this ability is called __________________.
Categorical perception
158
The ability to recognize a word as being the same, even if the pronunciation of the word varies between people is an auditory example of _____________.
Constancy
159
_______________ refers to the structure of words.
Morphology
160
Many words are composed of multiple building blocks called ______________, each of which connotes a particular meaning.
Morphemes
161
_____________ refers to the association of meaning with a word.
Semantics
162
____________ refers to how words are put together to form sentences.
Syntax
163
_______________ refers to the dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge.
Pragmatics
164
Pragmatics are affected by _____________ - the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices.
Prosody
165
An important precursor to language is ______________.
Babbling
166
During the 18 month mark of language explosion (________________), the child quickly learns dozen of words, and uses each word with varying inflection and gestures to convey a desired meaning.
Naming explosion
167
During the naming explosion, children may also frequently fall into _______________, in which they inappropriately apply a term to an object that bears cursory similarities to the term.
Overextension
168
_______________ happens when a child applies a grammatical rule (often a morpheme) in a situation where it does not apply: runned instead of ran, or funner instead of more fun.
Errors of growth
169
The _____________ (_______________) theory, largely credited to linguist Noam Chomsky, advocates for the existence of some innate capacity for language.
Nativist (biological) theory
170
Noam Chomsky noted that children learn to make transformational grammar effortlessly at an early age. This innate ability is called the ______________________ (________), a theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules.
Language acquisition device (LAD)
171
Nativists believe in a ______________ for language acquisition between two years and puberty. If no language exposure occurs during this time, later training is largely ineffective.
Critical period
172
A ______________ is a time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability.
Sensitive period
173
The _____________(_____________) theory, proposed by B. F. Skinner, explained language acquisition by operant conditioning.
Learning (behaviourist) theory
174
The __________________ theory of language development focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes.
Social interactionist theory
175
Linguist Benjamin Whorf proposed the _________________, also called the ______________________, which suggests that our perception of reality - the way we think about the world - is determined by the content of language.
- Whorfian hypothesis
- Linguistic relativity hypothesis
176
_____________, located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe, controls the motor function of speech (speech production) via connections with the motor cortex.
Broca's area
177
_______________, located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe, is responsible for language comprehension.
Wernicke's area
178
Broca's area and Wernicke's area are connected by the ________________, a bundle of axons that allows appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production.
Arcuate fasciculus
179
____________ is a deficit of language production or comprehension.
Aphasia
180
When damage occurs to Broca's area, speech comprehension is intact but the patient will have a reduced or absent ability too produce spoken language. This is known as _____________(______________)___________.
Broca's (expressive) aphasia
181
When Wernicke's area is damaged, motor production and fluency of speech is retained but comprehension of speech is lost. This is known as ______________(_____________)___________.
Wernicke's (receptive) aphasia
182
If the arcuate fasciculus is affected, the resulting aphasia is known as _________________. The patient is unable to repeat something that has been said because the connection between these two regions has been lost.
Conduction aphasia
