Chapter 3: Biological Foundations of Health and Illness

Question 1

Describe Lakeesha’s story

Answer 1

She was born with mild spastic cerebral palsy due to her mother’s drinking. She grew up with a myriad of health problems, but overcame many of them with the help of therapy and surgery. Her story shows the importance of the biopsychosocial model, which is a holistic approach to the treatment of illness and disease. it shows the inextricable link between body and mind

Question 2

Biological processes are regulated by which systems?

Answer 2

cardiovascular, endocrine, immune, reproductive, nervous, digestive, and respiratory systems

Question 3

cells (2 types)

Answer 3

discovered by Robert Hooke in the 1600’s. the basic unit of structure and function in living things. Found them by examining thin slices of cork and other plants with a compound microscope

Question 4

prokaryotic cells

Answer 4

make up bacteria and other single-celled organisms

Question 5

eukaryotic cells

Answer 5

found in all other living organisms, and contain specialized, membrane bound internal structures called organelles

Question 6

how many cells does the human body have?

Answer 6

roughly 10 trillion with 200 different types of specialized cells

Question 7

tissue (epithelial and connective)

Answer 7

a group of similar cells that perform a function

Question 8

epithelial tissue

Answer 8

sheets of closely packed cells covering body organs and other surfaces. they form glands that secrete hormones, breast milk, and other substances

Question 9

connective tissue

Answer 9

made up of more widely separated cells that function to bind together and support organs and other body tissues. bone, cartilage, and tendons are types of connective tissue

Question 10

organ

Answer 10

a group of tissues working together to accomplish a specific funtion

Question 11

nervous system

Answer 11

major control over the body systems belongs to the nervous system, which is made up of the brain, spinal cord, and the peripheral nerves that receive and send messages in the body

Question 12

neurotransmitters

Answer 12

chemical messengers released by a neuron at synapses that communicate across the synaptic gap and alter the electrical state of a receiving neuron

Question 13

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Answer 13

divided into two systems: the somatic and autonomic (parasympathetic and sympathetic) nervous systems

Question 14

central nervous system (CNS)

Answer 14

contains the brain and spinal cord

Question 15

brain

Answer 15

3 pounds of soft cheese that is responsible for movement, thinking, breathing, and speaking

Question 16

brainstem

Answer 16

the oldest and most central region of the brain; includes the medulla, pons, and reticular formation. it was the first evolution in the vertebrate brain

Question 17

why does the brain control opposite sides of the body?

Answer 17

because of crossing of nerves in the brain stem

Question 18

medulla (vital reflexes)

Answer 18

brainstem region that controls vital reflexes, such as heartbeat, salivation, sneezing, coughing, and breathing. damage to the medulla can be fatal

Question 19

pons (unconscious necessities)

Answer 19

just on top of the medulla, the pons consists of two pairs of thick stalks that connect to the cerebellum. the pons contain nuclei that help regulate sleep, breathing, swallowing, bladder control, equilibrium, taste, eye movement, and the like

Question 20

the reticular formation (alertness and arousal)

Answer 20

a network of neurons running through the brainstem involved with alertness, sleep and arousal. it also alerts the brain during moments of danger and it prioritizes all incoming information

Question 21

thalamus (senses -> cortex)

Answer 21

the brains sensory switchboard; located on top of the brainstem, it routes messages to the cerebral cortex

Question 22

cerebellum (movement)

Answer 22

maintain body balance and coordinate voluntary muscle movement

Question 23

limbic system (amyg, hipp, and hypo)

Answer 23

a network of neurons surrounding the central core of the brain; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression; includes the hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus

Question 24

amygdala (emotion/aggression)

Answer 24

two clusters of neurons in the limbic system that are linked to emotion, especially aggression (study on aggressive rhesus monkey where they surgically destroyed its amygdala, which made it docile)

Question 25

hippocampus (spatial and memory)

Answer 25

limbic system linked to learning, spatial orientation, and memory. when it is damaged, people usually develop anterograde amnesia (unable to form new memories)

Question 26

hypothalamus (boss of endocrine)

Answer 26

just below the thalamus, the region of the brain that influences hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland

Question 27

cerebral cortex

Answer 27

the thin layer of cells that covers the cerebrum; the seat of the conscious sensation and information processing

Question 28

the human brian

Answer 28

the cerebrum, which is covered in a network of blood vessels and made up of extensive folds and convolutions, is divided into two hemispheres

Question 29

occipital lobe (vision)

Answer 29

receives visual information from the retina of each eye

Question 30

parietal lobe (skin and body)

Answer 30

receives information from the skin and body

Question 31

temporal lobe (hearing)

Answer 31

receives information from the ears

Question 32

frontal lobe (high processing/movement)

Answer 32

involved in reasoning, planning, and controlling body movement

Question 33

sensory cortex

Answer 33

processes body sensations such as touch

Question 34

motor cortex (more cortex = more control)

Answer 34

controls voluntary movements. Wilder Penfield discovered that the amount of motor cortex devoted to a specific body part is proportional to the degree of control we have over that body part

Question 35

association cortex (thinking and speaking)

Answer 35

areas of the cerebral cortex not directly involved in sensory or motor functions; rather, they integrate multi-sensory information and higher mental functions such as thinking and speaking

Question 36

hormones

Answer 36

chemical messengers, released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands, which have an effect on distant organs

Question 37

endocrine system (secrete hormones to receptor sites)

Answer 37

closely related to the nervous system, but the NS communicates with neurotransmitters and the ES communicates with hormones. the ES governs slow-acting responses of longer duration. the endocrine glands submit hormones directly into the bloodstream, where they travel to various organs and bind to receptor sites

Question 38

pituitary gland (master gland CRH and ACTH)

Answer 38

master endocrine gland (hypothalamus is really the master because it has complete control over the pituitary) controlled by the hypothalamus; releases a variety of hormones (growth, sexual development, reproduction, kidney, and aging) that act on other glands throughout the body

Question 39

adrenal glands (norep, ep)

Answer 39

lying above the kidneys, the pair of endocrine glands that secrete epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol, which are hormones that arouse the body during movements of stress

Question 40

thyroid gland (growth+energy)

Answer 40

produces thyroxin, which helps regulate the body's growth and metabolism (energy use)

Question 41

parathyroid gland (calcium)

Answer 41

hormones secreted by these glands regulate calcium in the body within a narrow range so that the nervous and muscular systems can function properly

Question 42

pancreas (glucagon/insulin)

Answer 42

produces glucagon, and insulin, two hormones that act in opposition to regulate the level of the sugar glucose in the blood. glucagon raises glucose concentration, while insulin controls the conversion of sugar and carbs into energy by promoting the uptake of glucose in the body's cells

Question 43

arteries

Answer 43

blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood way from the heart to other organs and tissues; a small artery is called an arteriole

Question 44

veins

Answer 44

blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart from the capillaries

Question 45

blood

Answer 45

living tissue

Question 46

red blood cells

Answer 46

carry oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body (formed in the bone marrow and hold hemoglobin)

Question 47

white blood cells

Answer 47

part of the immune system, and the platelets are small cell fragments that stick together to form clots along the walls of damaged blood vessels

Question 48

bronchi (lung stems)

Answer 48

the pair of respiratory tubes that branch into progressively smaller passageways, the bronchioles, culminating in the air sacs within the right and left lungs

Question 49

respiratory system (pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli)

Answer 49

air enters through the nose and mouth, passes into the pharynx, past the larynx (voice box), and into the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles to the alveoli. The alveoli are where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged

Question 50

gastrointestinal system (digests food)

Answer 50

the body's system of digesting food; includes digestive tract (large/small intestine), salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder

Question 51

cilia

Answer 51

hairs in the nose, mouth, and trachea that trap germs and force them out of the respiratory system

Question 52

noncommunicable disease

Answer 52

a chronic disease, such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, or diabetes, that cannot be passed from person to person

Question 53

food digestion process

Answer 53

starts in the mouth where chemical action of salivary enzymes begin to break food down. Saliva makes food easier to swallow. After being swallowed, food passes to the esophagus, a 9.3 in muscular tube, which contracts rhythmically to push the food downwards (peristalis). in the stomach, food is mixed with a variety of gastric juices, including hydrochloric acid and pepsin, an enzyme that breaks down proteins. after about 4 hours, the stomach has entered its contents into the small and large intestine. digestive fluids from the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder are secreted into the small intestine through a series of ducts. Any food that wasn't processed by the small intestine passes to the big intestine, which adds more water to the mix

Question 54

antigens

Answer 54

can be bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, or any foreign microorganisms - are dangerous to your health, even deadly

Question 55

lymphocytes

Answer 55

produced in bone marrow, patrol the entire body, searching for bacteria, viruses, cancerous cells, and other antigens

Question 56

immune systems

Answer 56

network of capillaries, lymph nodes (glands), and ducts that comprise the lymphatic system

Question 57

lymph nodes

Answer 57

contain filters that capture infectious diseases and debris; lymph passes through the lymph nodes, the lymphocytes destroy the foreign particles collected there

Question 58

what play a part in the activity of lymphocytes?

Answer 58

the thymus and tonsils. The thymus functions as a part of the endocrine system (secretes thymosin - a hormone that helps control the maturation and development of lymphoctyres), and the tonsils are masses of lymphatic tissue that seem to function as a holding station for lymphocytes, as well as a garbage can for worn-out blood cells

Question 59

non specific immune response

Answer 59

first line is the nose, eyes, and respiratory tract. when someone penetrates skin cells, it encounters the second line of defense called phagocytosis, where phagocytes and macrophages attack the foreign particles

Question 60

natural killers

Answer 60

another part of the non specific immune system response. natural killers are smaller lymphocytes, which patrol the body for diseased cells that have gone awry. nk's inject their targets with lethal chemicals

Question 61

specific immune response

Answer 61

immune system's most powerful line of response, which occur when a particular substance has been encountered before. some specific immunities are acquired when a nursing mother passes a specific immunity to her child through breast milk, and others develop when a person successfully weathers a disease such as measles or is immunized

Question 62

specific immune responses involve what types of cells?

Answer 62

special lymphocytes called B cells and T cells, which recognize and attack specific invading antigens. B cells attack foreign substances by producing specific antibodies, or immunoglobulins, which are proteins that chemically suppress the toxic effects of antigens, primarily viruses and bacteria

Question 63

b cells

Answer 63

when a b cell is activated by a particular antigen, it divides into two types: a plasma cell capable of making 3000 to 30000 antibody molecules per second, and an antibody-producing memory cell. the rapid response of memory cells, called primary response, is the basis of immunity to many infections diseases, including polio, measles, and small pox

Question 64

t cells

Answer 64

directly attack and kill foreign substances without the aid of antibodies. there are three major varieties of t cells: cytotoxic cells, helper cells, and suppressor cells. Cytotoxic cells are killer cells that have a receptor that matches one specific antigen. helper t cells and suppressor t cells are the principal mechanisms for regulating the immune system's overall response to infection. they do so by secreting lymphokines, which stimulate or inhibit activity in other immune cells.

Question 65

helper T cells

Answer 65

sentries that travel through the bloodstream hunting antigens. when they find them, they secrete chemical messengers that alert b cells, phagocytes, macrophages, and cytotoxic t cells to attack

Question 66

suppressor t cells

Answer 66

serve as counter regulatory function. by producing chemicals that suppress immune responses, these cells ensure that an overzealous immune response doesn't damage healthy cells

Question 67

APR

Answer 67

acute phase response are the sweeping behavioral and physiological changes that occur. in addition to a fever, the APR is accompanied by reduced activity and food/water intake, increased sensitivity to pain, disrupted memory consolidation, and increased anxiety

Question 68

cytokines

Answer 68

chemical messengers that send the body into APR. these are produced in the blood by macrophages

Question 69

ovaries

Answer 69

on either side of the uterus, produce estrogen and progesterone

Question 70

testes

Answer 70

produce testosterone, which stimulates the development of secondary sex characteristics and brings about the production of sperm

Question 71

genome

Answer 71

the complete instructions for making an organism; including all the genetic material found in that organism's chromosomes

Question 72

monozygotic twins

Answer 72

one fertilized egg divides into two, producing identical twins; two individuals with the same genetic makeup

Question 73

stem cells

Answer 73

early, undifferentiated biological cells with the potential to develop into any other type of specialized cell

Question 74

genotype

Answer 74

the sum total of all the genes present in an individual

Question 75

phenotype

Answer 75

a person's observable characteristics; determined by the interaction of the individual's genotype with the environment

Question 76

autonomic nervous system

Answer 76

divided into the parasympathetic (calming the body down by slowing the heartbeat, stimulating digestion, and triggering other restorative processes in the body) and sympathetic (prepares the body for fight-or-flight responses, accelerating heartbeat, stimulating the secretion of adrenaline) nervous systems

Question 77

CRH

Answer 77

corticotropin release hormone, in charge of the stress response

Question 78

ACTH

Answer 78

adrenocorticotropic hormone, regulates levels of steroid hormone, cortisol

Question 79

cortisol

Answer 79

steroid hormone released in response to stress when blood-glucose levels are low (can help control blood sugar, regulate metabolism, reduce inflammation, assist in memory formation)