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Social Psychology > Chapter 6 > Flashcards

Chapter 6 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the different types of attitudes individuals can have based on their reactions?

A
  1. Positive attitude
  2. Dual attitude (ambivalent)
  3. Indifference (apathy)
  4. Negative attitude
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2
Q

A positive, negative, or mixed reaction to a person, object, or idea

A

Attitudes

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3
Q

How do researchers measure attitudes?

A
  1. Self-Report
  2. Covert measures
  3. Implicit associations
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4
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of Self-report measures of attitudes?

A

Strengths:
1. Direct measurement of attitudes by asking questions
2. Easiest way to assess a person’s attitude
3. Bogus pipeline (a phony lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive questions)
4. Attitude scales (Likert scales)

Weaknesses:
1. Issues with the extent on severity of attitude
2. How/when/where it is asked can influence results
3. Social desirability bias

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5
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of covert measures of attitudes?

A

Strengths:
1. Indirect measures of attitudes based on muscular or brain activity

Weaknesses:
1. Cannot know if an attitude is positive or negative

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6
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of implicit association measures of attitudes?

A

Strengths:
1. Covert measure of unconscious attitude is based on reaction times

Weaknesses:
1. Can be difficult to measure an unconscious attitude

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7
Q

A covert measure of unconscious attitudes derived from the speed at which people respond to pairings of concepts - such as black or white with good or bad

A

IAT

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8
Q

the ability of a test or other measurement to predict a future outcome

A

predictive validity

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9
Q

What conditions are necessary to predict behavior based on attitudes?

What did Ajzen & Fishbein (1977) find and which study demonstrates their findings?

A
  1. Strength of an attitude
  2. Specificity of an attitude
  3. Availability of an attitude

Ajzen & Fishbein (1977)

Found that attitudes correlate with behavior only when attitude measures closely match the behavior in question.

The study by Andrew Davidson and James Jaccard (1979) demonstrates this:
1. Tried to use attitudes to predict whether women would use birth control pills within the next two years.
2. Attitudes were measured in a series of questions ranging from very general (“How do you feel about birth control?”) to very specific (“How do you feel about using birth control pills during the next two years?”).
3. The more specific the initial attitude question was, the better it predicted the behavior.

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10
Q

What is the correspondence between attitudes and behavior?

A

Impacted by
1. Timing of measurement
2. Method of measurement

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11
Q

The theory that attitudes toward a specific behavior combine with subjective norms and perceived control to influence a person’s actions

A

Ajzen (1991): Theory of Planned Behavior

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12
Q

What are the four factors that influence the strength of attitudes?

A
  1. Content (How much information has been acquired) - Consistency is higher when attitude is well informed
  2. Source (How/Where the information is acquired from) - attitudes are more stable & consistent when based on firsthand experience
  3. Criticism (Perceived attacks on attitude) - messages attacking attitudes can strengthen them
  4. Availability (Ease of Access Mentally) - Attitudes that come to mind easier can exert influence over behavior
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13
Q

The process by which a person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues.

A

Peripheral route to persuasion

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14
Q

The process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments

A

Central route to persuasion

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15
Q

What is the dual-process model of persuasion & which route is more affective based on difference in the audience (target of the persuasive message)?

A
  1. Central route to persuasion (high ability and motivation) - people are influence by strong arguments and evidence
  2. Peripheral route to persuasion (low ability or motivation) - persuasion is based more on heuristics and other superficial cues
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16
Q

The process by which attitudes are changed

A

Persuasion

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17
Q

What are the factors that influence persuasion?

A
  1. Source Characteristics
  2. Message characteristics
  3. Audience characteristics
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18
Q

What are examples of source characteristics?

A
  1. Credibility
  2. Likeability
  3. Believability
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19
Q

What are examples of message characteristics?

A
  1. Informational strategies
  2. Discrepancies
  3. Fear Tactics
  4. Positive Emotions
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20
Q

What is an example of audience characteristics?

A
  1. Need for Cognition
  2. Self-Monitoring
  3. Regulatory Fit
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21
Q

Richard Petty & Others (1981) - Effects of argument strength & source manipulation on attitude change

A

1st graph with Policy Element:
1. High involvement -> stronger argument -> more persuasive
2. High involvement -> weaker argument -> not as persuasive
3. Low involvement -> less likely to persuade (less likely to pay attention to fact and opinions)

2nd graph with Credibility Element:
1. High involvement -> both sources are looked at similarly (because the information is being scrutinized)
2. Low involvement -> pay less attention to the source, while still paying attention to what’s being said
3. Low involvement -> high credibility -> we will consider an argument more persuasive
4. Low involvement -> less credible -> we are not going to trust what is being said

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22
Q

A delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a non-credible source

A

Sleeper effect

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23
Q

Initially discount non-credible communicators, but overtime, we may remember the message but not it’s source (therefor message seems more credible)

A

discounting cue hypothesis

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24
Q

How did the Kelman & Hovland (1953) study demonstrate sleeper effect & discounting cue hypothesis?

A

Experiment 1: The Sleeper Effect
1. Participants changed their immediate attitudes more in response to a message from a high-credibility source than from a low-credibility source.
2. When attitudes were measured again after three weeks, the high-credibility source had lost impact and the low-credibility source had gained impact

Experiment 2: discounting cue hypothesis
1. When attitudes were measured again after three weeks and the participants were reminded of the source, the sleeper effect disappeared

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25
Q

The tendency for earlier information to be recalled

A

primacy effect

26
Q

The tendency for later information to be recalled

A

recency effect

27
Q

What is the influence of primacy effect vs recency effect on attitudes? What study demonstrates this?

A

Miller & Campbell, 1959

Methods:
1. Participants were instructed to read a summary of the plaintiff’s and defendant’s case and make a decision or ruling based on the information presented

Results:
1. When both cases were presented same day & there was a one-week delay before making a ruling; primacy effect was observed in favor of whatever first case was presented. (Stronger impression)
2. When one case was presented followed by a one-week delay before the second case was presented before making a ruling; recency effect occurred in favor of the second case presented (availability heuristic)

28
Q

How effective is fear and when will it be most effective to persuade individuals?

A
  1. Effectiveness depends on how vulnerable a person feels about a threaten outcome
  2. If threat is perceived to be more imminent, individuals will follow recommendation & guidance
29
Q

A personality variable that distinguishes people on the basis of how much they enjoy effortful cognitive activities

A

Need for Cognition

30
Q

Which route of persuasion fulfills the need for cognition?

A

Information-oriented appeals

Central route to persuasion

31
Q

How does the need for cognition affect the prediction we can make about our self?

A
  1. Some people like to be well-informed
  2. Some people like problem solving
  3. Some people like staying involved

Theoretically
1. High need for cognition -> information-oriented appeals
2. Low need for cognition -> bottom line up front (B.L.U.F.)

32
Q

The tendency to regulate behaviors from situation-to-situation

A

Self-monitoring

33
Q

How does self-monitoring affect the behavior of people who are high self-monitoring compared to low self-monitoring?

A

High SM = more image conscious & may be more susceptible to persuasive attempts relevant to social image
Low SM = Less image conscious & behave according to beliefs

34
Q

The idea that exposure to weak versions of persuasion will increase later resistance to argument

A

Inoculation hypothesis

35
Q

The theory that people react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves & perceiving threaten freedom as more attractive

A

psychological reactance

36
Q

Inconsistencies in our thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors that produces psychological tension and discomfort which motivates people to reduce presence of inconsistencies

A

cognitive dissonance

37
Q

What does the cognitive dissonance theory predict about psychological discomfort association with attitudes-behaviors?

A

To re-establish balance (eliminate inconsistencies)
1. Change our attitude to match the behavior
2. Change our behavior to match the attitude
3. Change our attitude and behavior to match each other

May also be related to self-esteem

38
Q

Carlsmith & Festinger (1959) - Method and Findings

A

Method:
1. Participants were able to watch a movie and then split into three different conditions. One group was told to lie about how enjoyable the movie was to other passers for $1 and another for $20, while the last group was not told to lie.

Findings:
1. When a discrepancy between attitude & behavior exists, the behavior needs to be adequately justified.

39
Q

How are people motivated to change their attitudes or behaviors to resolve dissonance?

A

Depending on the
1. Individual
2. The context
3. The attitude/behavior
4. Amount of control

the method used to re-establish balance that works will vary significantly

40
Q

The idea that when people make sacrifices to pursue a goal, the effort is often rationalized by elevating the attractiveness of the goal

A

Effort justification

41
Q

A condition in which people freely perform an attitude-discrepant behavior without receiving a large award

A

Insufficient justification

42
Q

A condition in which people refrain from engaging in a desirable activity, even when only mild punishment is threatened.

A

insufficient deterrence

43
Q

Through the central route of persuasion, messages have greater impact when they are

A
  1. Easily learned rather than difficult
  2. Memorable rather than forgettable
  3. Stimulate a good deal of favorable rather than unfavorable elaboration
44
Q

Through the peripheral route to persuasion, people will often evaluate a communication by using

A
  1. Simple-minded heuristics
  2. Rules of thumb
45
Q

Through the peripheral route to persuasion, people think less critically about the contents of the communication and assume the message is correct when

A
  1. Has a good reputation
  2. Speaks fluently
  3. Writes well
  4. Content contains long litany of arguments and statistics
  5. If an argument has majority support
46
Q

If a source speaks clearly, if the message is important, if there is a bright, captive, and involved audience that cares deeply about the issue and has time to absorb the information, then audience members will be willing to take which route of persuasion?

A

Central route to persuasion

47
Q

If a source speaks at a rate too fast to comprehend, if the message is trivial or too complex to process, or if the audience members are distracted, pressed for time, or uninterested, then audience member will be willing to take which route of persuasion?

A

Peripheral route to persuasion

48
Q

When does the audience pay attention to what is being said over who is saying it?

A

When a message has personal relevance to your life

49
Q

When will the audience take the context of a message at face value and spent little time scrutinizing the information?

A

When a message has no personal relevance to your life

50
Q

On the peripheral route to persuasion, audiences are influenced heavily by

A

Source characteristics - who is speaking

51
Q

What is the most effective approach to using message discrepancy technique?

A
  1. Exercise caution
  2. Do not push for too much change

so that the audience will not reject the message outright.

52
Q

What is the results of positive emotions on persuasion?

A

Positive feelings activate the peripheral route to persuasion, facilitating change and allowing superficial cues to take on added importance

53
Q

Why do positive emotions affect the route of persuasion we take?

A
  1. it is cognitively distracting
  2. people assume all is well and let down their guard becoming lazy processors of information
  3. People feel good, they want that to continue
54
Q

People who are high rather than low in their need for cognition like to

A
  1. Work on hard problems
  2. Search for clues
  3. make fine distinctions
  4. analyze situations
55
Q

In the context of persuasion, high self-monitors may be particularly responsive to messages that promise what?

What are some examples?

A
  1. desirable social images
  2. Beer, cars
  3. The image is the message
56
Q

Joseph Cesario and others (2004) proposed the regulatory fit audience characteristics that states people are more likely to be influenced by messages that fit their frame of mind and “feel right.”

What are some examples of regulatory fit?

A

In particular, they noted that in an effort to regulate their own emotional state

  1. some individuals are promotion-oriented (drawn to the pursuit of success, achievement, and their ideals)
  2. others are more prevention-oriented (protective of what they have, fearful of failure, and vigilant about avoiding loss).
57
Q
  1. You say you’re on a diet, yet you just dove headfirst into a tub of chocolate fudge brownie ice cream.
  2. You waited in line for hours to get into a concert, and then the band proved to be disappointing.
  3. You baked for hours under the hot summer sun while listening to your iPod even though you knew the health risks.

These are examples of which theory or concept?

A

Cognitive dissonance

58
Q

What actually causes the tension felt during cognitive dissonance theory?

A
  1. The knowledge that you committed yourself to an attitude-discrepant behavior freely
  2. With some knowledge of the consequences.
59
Q

What does dissonance theory predict?

A

The more time, money, or effort you choose to invest in something, the more anxious you will feel if the outcomes proves disappointing

60
Q

T/F
The more money you pay people to tell a lie, the more they will come to believe it

A

False

61
Q

According to justification effort, people often come to like what they suffer for

T/F

A

True

Social Psychology (11 decks)

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