Chapter 8 Flashcards by Shana Iqbal

Concept

Mental representation of an object, event or idea

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Categories

Clusters of interrelated concepts

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Rule based categorization

Categorizing objects or events according to
-rules
-features

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Comparison based categorization

Prototype-Mental representation of an average category member
Exemplar-Specific (real) example best representing category
Graded membership-some concepts make better category members than others

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Semantic Networks

Interconectes set of nodes(concepts)
Joined by links to form a category
Reaction time can be used to test hierarchal organization, connectedness of networks

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Priming

Activation of individual concepts in LTM
Can influence which concepts/categories are referenced

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Basic Level Categories

Level prototypes exist

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Experience and categorization

Our experiences help us compare and categorize stimuli quickly and accurately
Can lead to bias

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The brain and categorization

Temporal lobe damage: difficulty identifying objects, while still able to describe object features
Category Specific Visual Agnosia: Difficulty identifying stimuli from a specific category
> suggests specialized networks for small group of categories important for evolutionary success

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Culture and categorization

Folk Biology: How the natural world is conceptualized and categorized differently across cultures
(Basic level categories differ across cultures)
Cross cultural differences in perceived relation between objects
(NA single object characteristics, Japan object in relation to environment)

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Problem solving

Accomplishing a goal when solution or path to solution is not clear

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Algorithms

Problem solving strategies based on series of rules

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Heuristics

Problem solving strategies using prior knowledge to make educated guesses

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Mental Set

Cognitive obstacle occurring when trying to solve new problem with routine incorrect solution
Functional Fixedness: identifying an object or technique to solve a problem but only thinking or most obvious function

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Conjunction Fallacy

Belied that finding a specific member in 2 overlapping categories is more likely than in one larger general category

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Representativeness Heuristic

Making judgements of likelihood based on how well example represents specific category

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Availability Heuristic

Estimating frequency of event based on how easily examples of it come to mind

Belief Perseverance

Remaining committed to decision or belief when provided evidence against it

Confirmation Bias

Searching for (or only paying attention to) evidence that confirms belief instead of evidence that may disconfirm belief

Aphasia

Language disorder caused by damage to brain structures that support use and understanding of language

Paul broca

Broca’s area: Region of left frontal lobe that controls our ability to articulate speech sounds that compose words

Carl Wernicke

Wernicke’s area: area of brain most associated with understanding words

Language

Form of communication that involves use of spoken, written or gestural symbols combined in rule based format
Contains discrete units of differing complexity
Spoken language combines units of sound (200 sounds for humans ) into infinite number of meanings

Phonemes

Most basic units of speech sounds

Morphemes

Smallest meanings units of a language

Semantics

Study of how people understand the meaning of words

Syntax

Rules for combining words and morphemes into meaningful phrases and sentences Most basic units >nouns and verbs

Pragmatics

Study of non linguistic elements of language use Emphasizes speaker’s behaviours and social situation How something is said more important than what is said (inferences) Flouting>disregarding language rules in obvious way

Infants-2 Months

Infants show preference for speech sounds over non speech sounds

Infants-6 Months

Infants show preference for context words (nouns and verbs)

Infants-8-10 Months

Infants begin perceiving sounds in ways consistent with native language

Infants-20 Months

Children able to use newly developed perceptual categories to quickly learn new words

Fast mapping

Ability to map words onto concepts or objects after only a single exposure

Naming Explosion

Rapid increase in vocabulary size -fast mapping -language related functions begin to localize in left hemisphere -increase in axon myelination>increased speed of neuronal communication

Procedural Spoken Language

Early psychologists focused on behavioural approaches to language learning -believe language was learned by imitating sounds and associated reinforcement -language learning replaced with language acquisition -regardless of language, children acquired similar language capabilities in stages

Stages

1-2: cooing 4-10: babbling(consonants) 8-16: single word 24: two word 24+: complete phrases

Bilingualism

Children-smaller vocab for each Adults- slower at naming pictures, alphabetical word lists Benefits- greater executive functioning, attention, greater frontal lobe connectivity

Genes, evolution and language

Genetics and evolutionary pressures led to development of brains capable of language FOXP2 gene related to languages function >mutations associated with difficulty turning thoughts to words >found in other species >role in component of language

Can Animals Use Language?

Songbirds have similar language related genes Monkey species have connections between brain areas like Broca’s and Wernicke’s -involved in control of facial and throat muscles Chimpanzees -can learn sign language (to 200) -communicate using symbols(lexigrams) up to 350 -can recognize spoken words up to 3000

Limitations

Limited use of syntax Don’t pass skills on Limited productivity -creating new words/gestures or using existing gestures to name new objects or events