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Microbiology > Chapter 8 > Flashcards

Chapter 8 Flashcards

1
Q

Nucleic acid

A

Large biomolecules that play essential roles in all cells and viruses

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2
Q

Phosphodiester bonds

A

The backbone of the strands of nucleic acid present in the life existing on Earth.

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3
Q

Purines

A

One of the two families of the nitrogenous bases that have a six-membered nitrogen- containing ring and a five membered nitrogen containing ring fused together

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4
Q

Adenine

A

One of the four nucleotide bases in DNA.

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5
Q

Guanine

A

One of the four nucleotide bases in DNA.

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6
Q

Pyrimidines

A

A heterocyclic aromatic organic compound that is composed of carbon and hydrogen.

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7
Q

Cytosine

A

One of the four nucleotide bases in DNA.

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8
Q

Thymine

A

One of the four nitrogenous nucleobases that form the basic building blocks of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

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9
Q

Uracil

A

One of the four nucleotide bases in RNA.

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10
Q

Who is Erwin Chargaff?

A

Analyzed the concentrations of different nitrogenous bases in different organism.

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11
Q

Who is Rosaline Franklin?

A

An X-ray crystallographer discovered two important things about DNA: The phosphate group was on the ‘outside’ of the structure. The structure was a helical structure.

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12
Q

Who is James Watson and Francis Crick?

A

Using Chargaff’s rules and Franklin’s structural analysis, Watson and Crick determined the detailed structure of the DNA molecule

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12
Q

Antiparallel

A

Parallel but oppositely directed or oriented.

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12
Q

Complementary base-pairing

A

Bases pair up with each other in consistent way.

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13
Q

Template

A

A pattern serving as a mechanical guide.

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13
Q

Complementary

A

In nature complementarity is the base principle of DNA replication and transcription as it is a property shared between two DNA or RNA sequences, such that when they are aligned antiparallel to each other, the nucleotide bases at each position in the sequences will be complementary.

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14
Q

Semiconservative

A

During DNA replication, the two strands of nucleotides separate.

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15
Q

Anabolic

A

Involves synthetic reactions of metabolism

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16
Q

Endergonic

A

Absorbing energy in the form of work.

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17
Q

Nucleotide Triphosphates

A

A nucleoside containing a nitrogenous base bound to a 5-carbon sugar (either ribose or deoxyribose), with three phosphate groups bound to the sugar.

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18
Q

Exergonic

A

Chemical reactions that release energy in the form of heat.

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19
Q

Template stand

A

The DNA sequence that can duplicate itself during mRNA synthesis.

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20
Q

Primer

A

A short nucleic acid sequence that provides a starting point for DNA synthesis.

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21
Q

dNTPs

A

Nucleoside triphosphates containing deoxyribose.

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22
Q

Building blocks

A

The basis of living organisms.

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23
Q

Enzymes

A

A biological catalyst and is almost always a protein.

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24
Q

Helicase

A

Enzymes that bind and may even remodel nucleic acid protein complexes.

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25
Q

Gyrase

A

An essential bacterial enzyme that catalyzes the ATP dependent negative super-coiling of double-stranded closed-circular DNA.

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26
Q

DNA polymerase I

A

An enzyme that participates in the process of prokaryotic DNA replication.

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27
Q

DNA polymerase III

A

The enzyme primarily responsible for replicative DNA synthesis in E.coli.

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28
Q

Primase

A

An enzyme that synthesizes short RNA sequences called primers.

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29
Q

Ligase

A

The class of enzyme that brings about the binding or joining of two molecules.

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30
Q

Replication fork

A

A structure that is opened by DNA helicase within the long helical DNA during DNA replication.

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31
Q

The leading stand

A

A single DNA strand that, during DNA replication, is replicated in the 3’-5’ direction.

32
Q

Lagging strand

A

A single DNA strand that, during DNA replication, is replicated in the 5’-3’ direction (opposite direction to the replication fork)

33
Q

Okazaki Fragments

A

The short lengths of DNA that are produced by discontinuous replication of the lagging strand.

34
Q

Nucleosome

A

Section of DNA that is wrapped around a core of proteins.

35
Q

Chromatin

A

A mixture of DNA and proteins that form the chromosomes found in the cells of humans and other higher organisms.

36
Q

Chromosomes

A

Threadlike structures made of protein and a single molecule of DNA that serve to carry the genomic information from cell to cell

37
Q

Nucleoid

A

An irregularly shaped region within the prokaryotic cell that contains all or most of the genetic material.

38
Q

Nucleus

A

The membrane-enclosed organelle within a cell that contains the chromosomes.

39
Q

The central Dogma

A

A theory stating that genetic information flow only in one direction, from DNA, to RNA, to protein, or RNA directly to protein.

40
Q

Transcription

A

The process of transcribing or making a copy of the genetic information stored in a DNA strand into a complementary strand of RNA (messenger RNA or mRNA) with the aid or RNA polymerases.

41
Q

Translation

A

The process by which a protein is synthesized from the information contained in a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA)

42
Q

Gene

A

The basic physical and functional unit of heredity.

43
Q

mRNA

A

Directs the cells to make a protein using its natural machinery.

44
Q

tRNA

A

A type of RNA molecule that helps decode a messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence into a protein,

45
Q

rRNA

A

A type of non-coding RNA which is the primary component of ribosomes, essential to all cells.

46
Q

Initiation

A

The beginning of transcription.

47
Q

Elongation

A

A biological process in which a biological entity is made longer

48
Q

Termination

A

A biological process where a biological entity is being ended or completed

49
Q

The promoter

A

A region of DNA upstream of a gene where relevant proteins ( such as RNA polymerase and transcription factors) bind to initiate transcription of that gene.

50
Q

RNA polymerase

A

An enzyme that is responsible for copying a DNA sequence into an RNA sequence.

51
Q

Ribonucleotide triphosphate (rNTPs)

A

A compound consisting of a nucleobase linked to a ribose sugar esterified with triphosphate on the sugar.

52
Q

Name some building blocks?

A

rATP, rUTP, rCTP, rGTP

53
Q

Splicing

A

An intermediate step in the process when our genes are decoded into proteins, the workhorses of the cell.

54
Q

Introns

A

A long stretch of noncoding DNA found between exons (or coding regions) in a gene.

55
Q

Splice

A

Biological process where a newly synthesized pre-mRNA is transformed into a mature mRNA.

56
Q

Poly-A-tail

A

Non-templated additions of adenosines at the 3’ end of most eukaryotic messenger RNAs.

57
Q

G-cap

A

Guanylate cyclase- activating protein.

58
Q

Ribosome Binding site (RBS)

A

An RNA sequence found in mRNA to which ribosomes can bind and initiate translation.

59
Q

16S rRNA

A

The central structural component of the bacterial and archaeal 30S ribosomal subunit.

60
Q

Start Codon

A

The initial set of codons in an mRNA transcript that is translated by a ribosome

61
Q

Anticodon

A

Sequences of nucleotides that are complementary to codons.

62
Q

Termination Factor

A

A protein that mediates the termination of RNA transcription by recognizing a transcription terminator and causing the release of the newly made mRNA.

63
Q

Stop Codon

A

A sequence of three nucleotides( a trinucleotide) in DNA or messenger RNA (mRNA) that signals a halt to protein synthesis in the cell.

64
Q

Activators

A

Any agency brining about activation.

65
Q

Repressors

A

Proteins that turn off or reduce gene expression.

66
Q

Operator

A

The DNA segment where the repressor molecule binds to the operon model.

67
Q

Inducible

A

Capable of being formed, activated, or expressed in response to a stimulus especially of a molecular kind.

68
Q

Repressible

A

They are on by default but can be turned off by a small molecule.

69
Q

Describe the structure and individual components making up DNA

A

DNA is made of chemical building blocks called nucleotides. These building blocks are made of three parts: a phosphate groups, a sugar group and one of four types of nitrogen bases.

70
Q

Name the Scientist who contributed to the discovery of DNA!

A

Erwin Chargaff, Rosaline Franklin, James Watson and Francis Crick.

71
Q

Differentiate between types of nucleic acid polymers!

A

The two main classes of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). If the sugar is ribose, the polymer is RNA; if the sugar is deoxyribose, a version of ribose, the polymer is DNA.

72
Q

Describe the process of DNA replication, including the enzymes responsible (be able to predict the directionality of DNA molecules)

A

DNA replication is semiconservative. Each strand in the double helix acts as a template for synthesis of a new, complementary stand. New DNA is made by enzymes called DNA polymerases, which require a template and a primer (starter) and synthesize DNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction.

73
Q

Describe how DNA is stored in different cells

A

Organisms composed of cells that contain nuclei are classified as eukaryotes, whereas organisms composed of cells that lack nuclei are classified as prokaryotes. In eukaryotes, DNA is housed within the nucleus, but in prokaryotes, DNA is located directly within the cellular cytoplasm, as there is no nucleus available.

74
Q

Understand the flow of information in biology: the central dogma

A

The central dogma of molecular biology is a theory stating that genetic information flows only in one direction, from DNA, to RNA, to protein, or RNA directly to protein. Consists of two process which is transcription and translation.

75
Q

Explain the main steps of transcription

A

1)Initiation: the beginning of transcription.
2)Elongation: The addition of nucleotides to the mRNA strands.
3)Termination: The ending of transcription, and occurs when RNA polymerase crosses a stop sequence in the gene.

76
Q

Explain the main steps of translation

A

1)Initiation: The ribosome is made of two separate subunits: the small subunit and the large subunit.
2)Elongation: The tRNA with the correct corresponding anticodon will match with the corresponding mRNA codon. A peptide bond, which is the type of bond that holds amino acids together, is formed between the methionine from the first tRNA with the second amino acid from the tRNA.
3)Termination: When the ribosome reaches a stop codon (UAG, UAA, or UGA) a release factor will bond to the stop codon and cause the amino acid chain to be released and the ribosome subunits to separate.

77
Q

Describe the genetic code and how the nucleotide sequence determines the amino acid sequence.

A

The nucleotide sequence of a gene, through the medium of mRNA , is translated into the amino acid sequence of a protein by rules that are known as the genetic code. This code was deciphered in the early 1960s. The sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule is read consecutively in groups of three.

78
Q

Describe how a single genome can cells to act and be different from each other

A

The combination of genes that are turned on (expressed) or turned off (repressed) dictates cellular morphology (shape) and function.

79
Q

Describe different levels of gene expression control in Eukaryotes and Explain why some of those methods do not work in bacteria

A

In eukaryotes, gene expression control occurs at multiple levels, including transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational, and post-translational regulation. These mechanisms help regulate gene activity and ensure proper cell function. Some methods, like alternative splicing and epigenetic modifications, are more complex and not present in bacteria due to differences in their genetic machinery.

80
Q

Describe what an operon is, what its purpose is, and (generally) how it works and The lac operon, but be able to extrapolate concepts from it

A

An operon is a group of genes that are regulated together and involved in related functions. The purpose of an operon is to coordinate the expression of these genes. The lac operon is a well-known example in bacteria. It consists of three main components: the promoter, operator, and structural genes. The lac operon controls the metabolism of lactose. When lactose is present, it binds to a repressor protein, causing it to detach from the operator. This allows RNA polymerase to bind the promoter and transcribe the structural genes, resulting in the production of enzymes needed for lactose metabolism.

Microbiology (16 decks)

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