Chp 1-3 Book Flashcards
(591 cards)
1
Q
an imaging tech created from sonor technology
A
ultrasound
2
Q
microscopic examination of a frozen tissue specimen is an application of ….
A
histology
3
Q
what is a cell
A
the basic structural and functional units of all living orgnisms
4
Q
the changes an organism undergoes through time
A
development
5
Q
in a negetive feedback mechanism, the response of the effector
A
is to make the deviation from the set point smaller
6
Q
what is one of the structures contained in the mediastinum
A
esophagus
7
Q
the plane that cuts the body lengthwise and seperates the body into anterior and posterior portions
A
frontal
8
Q
What is anatomy?
A
scientific discipline that investigates the bodys structure (shape/size)
9
Q
What is physiology?
A
scientific investigation of the processes or function of living things
10
Q
What are the four topics of anatomy?
A
regional- area by area
systemic- system by system
surface- external form and relation to deeper structures as Xray in anatomic imaging
cytology- the study of cell
histology- tissues
11
Q
what are the three topics of physiology?
A
cell- processes in cells
neurophysiology- nervous system
cardiovascular- heart and blood vessels
12
Q
anatomical imaging
A
radiography, ultrasound, mri to create picture of internal structures. allows amazing accuracy without trauma.
13
Q
What are two subjects that encompass both anatomy and physiology?
A
pathology
exercise physiology
14
Q
pathology
A
structural and functional changes caused by disease
15
Q
exercise physiology
A
changes in structure and function caused by disease
16
Q
what are the six levels of organization?
A
chemical- atoms/molecules
cell- functional unit of life
tissue- similar cells
organ- several tissues
organ system- several organs
organism- a living thing
17
Q
What are the organ systems of the body?
A
integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive
18
Q
What are the 6 characteristics of human organism?
A
organization- specific relationships and functions
metabolism- chemical reactions of body
responsiveness- ability to sense changes
growth- increase in size and number of cells
development- changes in organism over time
reproduction- new cells or new organism
19
Q
What are the two types of development?
A
differentiation- change from general to specific
morphogenesis- change in shape of tissues, organs.
20
Q
What is homeostasis?
A
the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body
21
Q
set point
A
the ideal normal value of a variable
22
Q
what are the two types of feedback system?
A
negative and positive
23
Q
what are the three components of a feedback system?
A
receptor - monitors the value of some variable
control center - establishes set point
effector - change the value of the variable in response
24
Q
What is negative feedback?
A
any deviation from the set point is made smaller
25
what is positive feedback?
when a deviation occurs, the response is to make the deviation greater
26
what is one example that positive feedback is good?
childbirth
27
What is the anatomical position?
body erect, face forward, feet together, palms face forward.
28
What is supine?
laying face up
29
What is prone?
lying face down
30
superior vs. inferior
toward the head and away from the head.
31
medial vs. lateral
toward the midline or away from
32
proximal vs distal
closer to point of attachment or farther away
33
superficial vs. deep
relative to the surface of the body
34
anterior vs posterior
forward and toward the back
35
What are the abdominal subdivisions
epigastic, hypochodriac, umbilical, lumbar, hypogastric, iliac
36
What are the four body planes
median
frontal or coronal
transverse
oblique
37
What are the three serous membranes?
pericardium- heart
pleura- lungs
peritoneum- abdominopelvic
38
What are the six kinds of imaging techniques?
radiography- xray
ultrasound - US
computed tomography- CT
digital subtraction angiography- DSA
magnetic resonance imaging- MRI
positron emission tomography- PET
39
radiography
shadowy negative of internal body structures
40
ultrasound
computer analyzed sound waves bounced off a structure
41
CT scan
computer analyzed composite of radiograph; shows slices of body
42
DSA
comparision of radiographs with and without dye
43
MRI
uses magnetism and radio waves to look for varying alignments of protons in soft tissues.
44
PET
uses radioactively labeled glucose- calculates metabolic activity of cells.
45
What is an element?
simplest type of matter with unique chemical properties
46
What is an atom?
smallest particle of an element that has chemical characteristic of that element
47
neutron
no charge
48
proton
positive charge
49
electron
negatively charged particle
50
Chemical bonds
when an electron is transferred or shared.
51
ionic bond
when an electron is lost or shared
52
covalent bond
when electron is shared
53
What is a molecule?
two or more atoms combine
54
What is a compound?
two or more atoms combine (different atoms)
55
What is a catalyst?
a substance that increases a chemical reaction without being depleted.
56
What is an enzyme?
a protein catalyst.
57
What is inorganic chemistry?
deals with substances that do not contain carbon.
58
What is a solution?
any mixture of liquid, gas, or solid.
59
What is an acid?
a proton donor - Ph less than 7
60
What is a base?
a proton acceptor
61
What is organic chemistry?
study of carbon containing substances
62
What are the four major groups needed for living things
carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
nucleic acid
63
What is the basic structure of the cell?
plasma membrane
cytoplasm
nucleus
64
plasma membrane
cell membrane, forms outer bondary of the cell
65
cytoplasm
between the two - contains organelles, jelly substance
66
nucleus
directs cell activity
67
organelles
specilized structures that perform specific functions
68
What are the 4 functions of the cell
1. cell metabolism and energy use
2. synthesis of molecules
3. communication
4. reproduction and inheritence
69
How is DNA exchanged?
gametes cells exchange DNA during sexual intercourse
70
What does the plasma membrane do?
separate inter-cellular from extracellular.
71
What is membrane potential?
a charge across the membrane from intracellular and extracellular ion concentrations.
72
What are the two types of glycocalyx
glycolipids - carbs +lipids
glycoproteins - carbs +proteins
73
What makes up the membrane lipids
phospholipids and cholesterol
74
What are the two types of membrane proteins
integral or intrinsic- extend deeply into membrane
peripheral or extrinsic- attached to integral proteins at either the inner or outer surfaces of lipid bilayer
75
What does membrane functioning depend on?
3D shape and chemical characteristics
76
Do membrane proteins matter?
marker molecules
attachment proteins
transport proteins
enzymes
receptor proteins
77
What are marker proteins
glycoproteins and glycolipids
cells identify each other.
78
What are the two types of attachment proteins
cadherins - cells to cells
integrins - integral proteins that attach to extracellular molecule.
79
What are the three types of transport proteins?
channel
carrier
ATP powered
80
What are the two types of Channel proteins?
nongated ion channels -always open. plasma membrane permeable to a few ions when the plasma membrane is at rest.
gated - opened/closed by stimuli
81
What are the two types of gated ion channels
ligand - opens - a small molecule binds to proteins or glycoproteins
voltage - opens - a change in charge across plasma membrane
82
What are the several forms of carrier proteins
uniporter- moves one particle
symporters- moves two particles in same direction at same time
antiporters - move two particles opposite directions at same time.
83
ATP powered transport depends on
concentration of substrate and ATP
84
What do the enzymes in the plasma membrane act to
catalyze reactions at outer/inner surface of plasma membrane.
85
What are the two types of receptor proteins
Receptors- linked to Channel Proteins
Receptors- linked to G protein complexes
86
Kinds of passive membrane transport
diffusion
osmosis
facilitated diffusion
87
kinds of active membrane transport
active transport
secondary active transport
vesicular transport
88
What is diffusion
movement of solutes in solution. higher concentration to lower concentration
89
What are the three parts of diffusion
concentration - difference between two points
viscosity - how easily liquid flows
temperature - affects the movement of particles.
90
What is osmosis?
diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. water from area of low concentration to area of high concentration.
91
What is osmotic pressure?
force required to prevent water from moving across a membrane by osmosis
92
isomotic
solutions with same concentration of solute particles.
93
What is hyperosmotic
solution with a greater concentration of solute.
94
What is hyposmotic
solution with a lesser concentration of solute.
95
isotonic solution
cell neither shrinks nor swells
96
hypertonic solution
cell shrinks -crenation
97
hypotonic solution
cell swells -lysis
98
What does facilitated diffusion do?
move large, water soluble molecules or electrically charged molecules across membrane.
99
What does active transport depend on?
concentration of substrate and ATP
100
What is secondary active transport?
ions or molecules move in same or different direction.
101
What is endocytosis
internalization of substances - formation of vesicle.
102
What are the types of endocytosis
phagocytosis
pinocytosis
receptor mediated endocytosis
103
What is exocytosis
secretions expelled from the cell
104
What are the four parts of the cytoplasm
cytosol
cytoskeleton
cytoplasmic inclusions
organelles
105
What are the three parts of the cytoskeleton
microtubules
intermediate filaments
actin filaments
106
What is the cytosol
fluid portion of the cytoplasm
107
What does the cytoskeleton do
supports the cell
108
What are microtubules
hollow, internal scaffold, transport in cell, cell division.
109
What are cytoplasmic inclusions
aggregates of chemicals
110
What are organelles
small specilized structures- with specific structure/function.
111
What is part of chromosome structure
DNA + proteins
112
What are the two types of ribosomes
free and attached.
113
What are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum
rough - attached - proteins produced and modified
smooth - not attached - lipids and carbohydrates
114
What is the purpose of the gogli apparatus
modifications, packaging, distribution of proteisn and lipids
115
What are the two membranes on the mitochondria
cristae
matrix
116
Where are microtubules made
centrosome
117
Whats cilia
appendages projecting from cell surfaces
118
Whats microvilli
extension of plasma membrane
119
What is a gene
functional unit of heredity
120
What are the two types of genes
structural- serve as template fro mRNA
regulatory- control which structural genes transcribes in given tissue
121
What is transcription
DNA used to form mRNA
122
What is translation
synthesis of a protein at the ribosomes using mRNA< tRNA and rRNA.
123
What four things happen in transcription
DNA strands are seperated
RNA polymerase binds at promoter region
RNA polymerase helps form mRNA chain using DNA
transcription ends at terminator sequence
124
What does mRNA do?
directs polypeptide production.
125
Where does translation occur
ribosomes in cytoplasm
126
What is an interphase
phase between cell divisions
127
What are the four phases of cell division
prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
128
What happens in metaphase
chromosomes are aligned at nuclear equator
129
What happens in anaphase
spindle fibers seperate the chromatids
130
What happens in telophase
chromosomes decondense
131
What happens in prophase
nuclear envelope disintegrates
132
What is cyrokinesis
cytoplasmic division.
133
What are the two steps in replication of DNA
DNA strands seperate
old strands become templates for new strands to form.
134
Human anatomy and physiology is the basis for what?
understanding disease
135
What does the word anatomy mean?
to dissect or cut apart and separate the parts of the body for study.
136
What does developmental anatomy study
the structural changes that occur between conception and adulthood.
137
What is embryology
a subspecialty of developmental anatomy, considers changes from conception to the end of the eight week of development.
138
What is cytology
examines the structural features of cells
139
What is histology
examines tissues, which are composed of cells and the materials surronding them
140
What is gross anatomy
the study of structures that can be examined without the aid of microscope, can be approached either systemically or regionally.
141
What is a system
a group of structures that have one or more common functions, such as cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory, skeletal, or muscular systems.
142
What is surface anatomy
involves looking at the exterior of the body to visualize structures deeper inside the body.
143
What are anatomical anomalies?
physical characteristics that differ from the normal pattern.
144
What is celWhat are the two types of systemic physiologyl physiology
examines the processes occuring in cells such as energy production from food
145
What is systemic physiology
considers the functions of organ systems.
146
What are the two types of systemic physiology
cardiovascular
neurophysiology
147
What is pathology
is the medical science dealing with all aspects of disease, with an emphasis on the cause and development of abnormal conditions, as well as the structural and functional changes resulting in disease.
148
What is exercise physiology?
focuses on the changes in function and structure caused by exercise.
149
What are the six levels of organization
chemical, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
150
What does the chemical level involve
how atoms, interact and combine into molecules.
151
What does molecules structure determine
its function
152
What are cells
are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms.
153
What do organelles do?
carry out particular functions, such as digestion and movement, for the cell.
154
What is human health dependent upon?
the health of our microbiota, the good bacteria.
155
What is a tissue
is composed of a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them.
156
What are the 4 types of tissues?
epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous.
157
What is an organ
is composed of two or more tissue types that perform one or more common functions.
158
What determines the function of a tissue?
the characteristics of the cells and surrounding materials.
159
What are the major goals when studying human physiology
to understand and predict the body responses to stimuli and to understand how the body maintains conditions within a narrow range of values in a constantly changing environment.
160
What is an organ system
A group of organs working together to perform a particular function
161
What are the 11 major organ system?
integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive.
162
What is an organism
is any living thing considered as a whole- whether composed of one cell, or trillions of cells
163
organization
refers to the specific interrelationships among the parts of an organism and how those parts interact to perform specific functions.
164
What is metabolism
is the ability to use energy and to perform vital functions.
165
The shape of a molecule determines its what
function
166
What is metabolism necessary for?
vital functions like responsiveness, growth, development, and reproduction.
167
What is responsiveness
an organism ability to sense changes in its external or internal environment and adjust to those changes.
168
What does growth refer to?
an increase in the size or number of cells, which produces an overall enlargement of all or parts of an organism.
169
What is development
the changes an organism undergoes through time, beginning with fertilization and ending at death.
170
differentiation
involves changes in a cells structure and function from an immature, generalized state to a mature, specialized state.
171
What is morphogenesis
is the change in shape of tissues, organs, and the entire organism.
172
What is reproduction
the formation of new cells or new organism.
173
What are the six characteristics of life
organization
metabolism
responsiveness
growth
development
reproduction
174
homeostasis
the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body
175
What must a body do to acheive homeostasis
the body must activly regulate conditions that are constantly changing
176
What must happen for a cell to function normally?
the volume, temp, and chemical content of their environment must be maintained within a narrow range.
177
What is one of the most well known examples of homeostasis
body temperature
178
What is negative feedback
when any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is resisted.
179
What are the three components of a negative feedback system
receptor, control center, effector.
180
What is a receptor
monitors the value of a variable such as body temp by detecting stimuli
181
What is the control center
determines the set point for the variable and receives input from the receptor about the variable
182
What is an effector
can adjust the value of the variable when directed y the control center, usually back towards the set point.
183
What is Orthostatic hypotension
is a significant drop in blood pressure upon standing
184
What are metabolic pathways
are chemical reactions driven by biological protein catalysts called enzymes.
185
What is positive feedback
occurs when a response to the original stimulus results in the deviation from the set point becoming even greater.
186
What is an examples of a normal positive feedback
birth, blood clots
187
What are the two basic principles about homeostatic mechanisms
many disease states result from the failure of negative feedback to maintain homeostasis.
some positive feedback mechanism can be detrimental instead of helpful.
188
What is one example of a detrimental positive feedback mechanism
inadequate delivery of blood to cardiac muscle
189
What is the anatomical position
refers to a person standing erect with the face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward.
190
What does the sufix itis mean
inflammation
191
what does anterior mean
in front of
192
What does posterior mean
behind
193
What does ventral mean
towards the belly
194
What does dorsal mean
toward the back
195
proximal
closer to point of attachment
196
What does distal mean
farther from point of attachment
197
What does lateral mean
away from midline
198
What does medial mean
toward the midline
199
What is the term superior exchanged with
cephalic
200
What is the term inferior exchanged with
caudal
201
What does the central region of the body consist of
the head, neck, and trunk
202
What regions can the trunk be divided into
thorax, abdomen, pelvis.
203
What are the nine regions of the abdomen
epigastric, hypochindriac, umbilical, lumbar, hypogastric, iliac.
204
Saggital plane
seperates the body into right and left halves.
205
Median plane
saggital plane that passes through the midline of the body, dividing into equal halves.
206
Transverse plane
runs parrallel to the ground, dividing the body into superior and inferior portions.
207
Frontal plane
divides the body tino front and back halves.
208
What are the two types of internal cavities
dorsal and ventral body cavities.
209
What does the dorsal cavity enclose?
the organs of the nervous system, brain, and spinal cord.
210
What are the two subdivisions of the dorsal body cavity
cranial and vertebral
211
What are the two divisions of the ventral body cavity
thoracic cavity, abdominopelvic.
212
What can the thoraicic cavity be divided into
pleural cavaties, medial mediastinum
213
What is the parietal serous membrane
the layer that lines the walls of the cavity
214
What is the visceral serous membrane
the layer covering the internal organs.
215
What is the pleural cavity
contains the lungs
216
What is the peritoneal cavity
houses liver, digestive organs, and reproductive.
217
What are mesenteries
regions of double folded visceral peritoneum.
218
What do mesenteries provide
a pathway fro nerves and blood vessels to reach the digestive organs.
219
What does retroperitoneal mean
behind the peritoneum.
220
What is pericarditis
an inflammation of the serous pericardium.
221
What is cardiac tamponade
is a potentially fatal condition in which a large volume of fluid or blood accumulates in the pericardial cavity and compresses the heart from the outside.
222
What are some causes of cardiac tamponade
rupture of the heart wall, rupture of blood vessels in pericardium, damage to pericardium due to radiation therapy, and trauma.
223
What is pleurisy
inflammation of the pleura
224
What is peritonitis
inflammation of the peritoneum
225
What does chemicals compose?
the structures of the body and the interactions of chemicals with one another are responsible for the body's functions.
226
What is chemistry
the scientific discipline concerned with the atomic composition of substances and the reactions they undergo.
227
What is matter
anything that occupies space
228
What is mass
the amount of matter in an object.
229
What is weight
the gravitational force acting on an object of a given force.
230
What is the international unit for mass
kilogram
231
What is an element
the simpliest type of matter, having unique chemical properties.
232
What is an atom
the smallest particle of an element that has chemical characteristics of that element. .
233
What is an element composed of
atoms of only one kind.
234
What does the characteristics of matter result from
the structure, organization, behavior of atoms
235
What is an electron cloud
the region where electrons are most likely to be found
236
How is each element uniquely defined
by the number of protons in the atoms of that element.
237
What is atomic number
an element that is equal to the number of protons in each atom and because the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons, the atomic number is also the number of electrons.
238
What is the mass number
the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in each atom.
239
What is an isotope
are two or more forms of the same element that have the same number of protons and electrons but a different number of nuetrons.
240
What is a dalton
unified atomic mass unit. a carbon mass with 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
241
What is atomic mass
is the average mass of its naturally occurring isotopes, taking into account the relative abundance of each isotope.
242
What is molar mass
the mass of 1 mole of a substance expressed in grams.
243
What is the chemical behavior of an atom dependent on
its electrons
244
What is electron shells
the energy levels are often depicted as concentric rings.
245
What is a valence shell
the outermost shell
246
What determines an atoms chemical nature
the number of electrons in the valence shell
247
What does inert mean
if the valence shell is full
248
What does chemically reactive mean
if an atoms valence shell is not full
249
What is the octet rule
the tendency of atoms to combine with other atoms until each has 8 electrons.
250
What are the two ways atoms achieve an octet
the transfer of electrons between atoms
the sharing of electrons between atoms
251
What is electronegativity
the ability of an atoms nucleus to attract electrons.
252
What are the two major types of chemical bonds
ionic and covalent.
253
What is an ion
when the numbers of protons and electrons are no longer equal, and called a charged particle.
254
What are cations
positively charged ions
255
When does an ionic bond form
when electrons are transferred between atoms, creating oppositely charged ions.
256
What is significance of calcium
functins in blood clotting, muscle contraction
257
What is sig of sodium
membrane potentials, water balance
258
what is sig of potassium
membrane potentials
259
What is sig of phosphate
parts of bone and teeth. functions in energy exchange, acid-base soltuion
260
what is sig of iron
red blood cell formation
261
what is sig of magnesium
necessary fro enzymes
262
what is sig of iodide
present in thyroid hormones.
263
When does a covalent bond form
when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons.
264
When does the sharing of electrons occur
when the atoms have similar electronegativities.
265
What is a single covalent bond
the sharing of one pair of electrons by two atoms
266
What is a double covalent bond
when two atoms share 4 electrons, 2 from each atom
267
What is nonpolar covalent bonds
when electrons are shared equally between atoms
268
What is polar covalent bonds
where the two atoms involved in a covalent bond have different electronegativities.
269
What is a molecule
is composed of two or more atoms chemically combined to form a structure that behaves as a independent unit.
270
What does a molecule normally consist of
consists of two or more different types of atoms
271
What is a compound
a substance resulting from the chemical combination of two or more different types of atoms.
272
What is a chemical formula
the formulas shows the kind of number of atoms present
273
What is an electron dot formula
the bonding electrons are shown as dots between the symbols of the atoms
274
What is bond line formula
the bonding electrons are shown as lines between teh symbols of the atoms
275
What is models
atoms are shown as different sized and different colored spheres.
276
What can the molecular mass of a molecule or compound be determined by
adding up the atomic mass of its atoms
277
What is intermolecular forces
the weak electrostatic attractiosn that exist between oppositely charged parts of molecules, or beteen ions and molecules.
278
What do intermolecular forces result from
the attraction of the positive end of one polar molecule to the negative end of another polar molecule.
279
When does a hydrogen bond form
if the positively charged hydrogen of one molecule is attracted to the negatively charged oxygen, nitrogen, or flourine of another molecule.
280
What is an ionic bond
a complete transfer of electrons between two atoms results in seperate positively charged and negative charged ions.
281
What is polar covalent bond
an unequal sharing of electrons between two atoms results in a slightly positive charge on one side of the molecule and a slightly negative charge.
282
What is a nonpolar covalent bond
an equal sharing of electrons between two atoms results in an even charge distribution among the atoms of the molecule.
283
What is a hydrogen bond
the attraction of oppositely charged ends of one polar molecule to another polar molecule hold molecules or parts of molecules together.
284
What is solubility
the ability of one substance to dissolve in another.
285
What does dissociate mean
when ionic compounds dissolve in water or seperate from one another because cations are attracted to the negative ends of water and anions attracted to the positive end of water.
286
What is electrolytes
cations and anions that dissociate in water because they have the capacity to conduct and electric current, which is the flow of charged particles.
287
What is an electrocardiogram
a recording of electric currents produced by the heart
288
What is an nonelectrolytes
molecules that do no dissociate form solutions that do not conduct electricity
289
What is an example of a nonelectrolyte
pure water
290
maintaining the proper balance of electrolytes is important for?
keeping the body hydrated, controlling blood pH, and ensuring the proper function of muscles and nerves.
291
When does a chemical reaction occur
when atoms, ions, molecules , or compounds interact either to form or to break chemical bonds.
292
What are reactants
the substance that enter into a chemical reaction
293
What is products
substances that result from the chemical reaction.
294
What are three important points that cna be made about chemical reactions.
less complex reactants are combined to form a larger more complex product.
a reactant can be broken down, or decomposed, into simplier, lexx complex products.
atoms are generally associated with other atoms through chemical bonding or intermolecular forces.
295
hat is a synthesis reaction
when two or more reactants chemically combine to form a new and larger product.
296
Whats anabolism
the collective term for synthesis reactions in the body
297
What is dehydration reaction
synthesis reactions in which water is a product
298
What is a decomposition reaction
the reverse of a synthesis reaction. a larger reactant is chemically broken down into two or more slammer products.
299
The anabolic and catabolic reactions int he body are collectively called
metabolism
300
What is equilibrium
when the rate of a product formation is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction.
301
What are oxidatio reduction reactions
chemical reactions that result from the exchange of electrons between the reactants
302
What is oxidation
the loss of an electron by an atom
303
What is reductionv
the gain of an electron
304
What is an oxidation reduction reactions
one atom partially or completely loses an electron and another atom gains that electron.
305
What is energy
the capacity to do work
306
What is potential energy
stored energy that could do work
307
What is kinetic energy
is the form of energy that is actually doing work and moving matter.
308
What is mechanical energy
results from the position or movement of objects.
309
What is chemical energy
is a form of potential energy within the chemical bonds of a substance.
310
What are the two types of energy
chemical heat
311
What is heat energy
is a form of energy that flows from a hotter object to a cooler object.
312
When does a chemical reaction occur
only when molecules with suficent kinetic energy collide with each other.
313
What is activation energy
the minimum amount of energy that the reactants must have to start a chemical reaction.
314
What is a catalyst
substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without being permeately changed or depleted themselves.
315
enzymes
increase the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy necessary fro the reaction to begin.
316
What can affect the speed of chemical reactions
temperatures
317
What is inorganic chemistry
generally deals with substances that do not contain carbon
318
What is organic chemicstry
is the study of carbon contianing substances
319
What are some important roles of inorganic molecules
oxygen we breath, carbon dioxide we exhale, water essential for life, calcium phosphate that makes up our bones, metals required for protein functions
320
What does hydrophobic mean
molecules that lack attraction to water
321
What are two of the unique properties of water
cohesion and adhesion.
322
What is cohesion
the attraction of water to another water molecule
323
What is adhesion
the attraction of water to other molecules.
324
What are the two ways that water helps stabilize temperature
absorption of heat and evaporation.
325
What are the two ways that water protects the body
lubricant and cushion.
326
What is a mixture
a combination of two or more substances physically blended together, but not chemically combines.
327
What is a solution
any mixture in which the substances are uniformly distributed.
328
What is a suspension
a mixture containing materials that seperate from each other unless they are continually, physically blended together.
329
What is an example of a suspension
blood
330
What is a colloid
a mixture in which a dispersed substance or particle os unevely distributed through the mixture.
331
What does osmolality reflect
the number, not the type of particles in a solution.
332
What is another name for a basic solution
alkaline
333
When does acidosis result
if blood ph drops below 7.35
334
When does alkalosis result
if blood ph rises above 7.45
335
What are buffers
chemicals that ressit changes in pH when either acids or bases are added to a solution.
336
What is a conjugate base
what remains of an acid after the H proton is lost
337
When is a conjugate acid formed
when a H is transferred to the conjugate base
338
What is oxygen
an inorganic molecule consisting of two oxygen atoms bound together by a double covalent bond.
339
What is carbon dioxide
consists of one carbon atom bound to two oxygen atoms.
340
What are the four major groups of organic molecules essential to living organism
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.
341
What are carbohydrates
are organic molecules composed primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms and range in size from small to very large.
342
What are carbohydrates three major roles in the body
they are parts of other organic molecules
they are broken down to provide energy
when undigested they provide bulk in feces.
343
large carbohydrates are composed of numerous simple building blocks called
monosaccharides.
344
What are isomers
molecules that have the same number and types of atoms but differ in their three dimensional arrangement
345
What are disaccharides
composed of two monosacchardies bound together through a dehydration reaction.
346
What are polysacchardies
long chains of monosaccharides.
347
What are two important polysaccharides
starch and cellulose
348
What are lipids
a major group of organic molecules that are defines as being relatively insoluble in water.
349
What is the important function of lipids in the body
they provide protection and insulation, help regulate many physiological processes, and form plasma membranes.
350
What are the major classes of lipids
fats, phospholopids, eicosanoids, steroids, fat soluble vitamins
351
What are the roles of lipids in the body
protection
insulation
regulation
vitamins
structure
energy
352
What does saturation refer to
the numbe of hydrogen atoms in athe carbon chain
353
polyunsaturated fats
two or more double covalent bonds between carbon atoms.
354
Trans fats
unsaturated fats that have been chemically altered by the addition of hydrogen.
355
What are steroids
lipids that have four ringlike structures
356
what are some important steroid molecules
cholesterol, bile salts, reproductive hormones estrogen, progesterone, testosterone.
357
What are proteins important functions in the body
regulate body processes, act as transportation system, provide protection, help muscle contract, provide structure and energy.
358
What is the role of proteins in the body
regulation, transport, protection, contraction, structure, energy
359
What are the basic building blocks for proteins.
amino acids.
360
What are peptide bonds
covalent bonds formed between amino acid molecules during protein synthesis
361
What is the primary structure of a protein determined by
the sequence of the amino acids bound by peptide bonds.
362
What is denaturation
is the change in shape caused by the breaking of hydrogen bonds.
363
What is a domain
a folded sequence of 100-200 amino acids within a protein.
364
What is a enzyme
a protein catalyst that increases the rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds without the enzyme being permanently changed.
365
What is the active site
the region of the enzyme that binds reactants and catalyzes their conversion to products.
366
What is a lipase
enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of lipids
367
What is protease
an enzyme that breaks down proteins
368
What doe enzymes control
the rate at which most chemical reactions proceed in living systems.
369
What are the two types of nucleic acids
deoxyribonucleic and ribonucleic
370
What does DNA contain
the information that determines the structure of proteins.
371
What are the basic building blocks of DNA and RNA
nucleotides
372
What are complementary base pairs
bases held together by hydrogen bonds.
373
What does antiparallel mean
that the two strands lie side by side but there sugar phophate extend in opposite directions because of the orientation of the nucleotides.
374
What is a gene
a sequence of DNA bases that directs the synthesis of proteins or RNA molecules
375
What do genes determine
the type and sequence of amino acids in protein molecules.
376
What is ATP
the most important molecule fro storing and providing energy in all living organisms.
377
What is ATP used for
providing energy for other chemical reactions or toe drive cell processes, such as muscle contraction.
378
What is ATP often called
the energy currency of cells because it is capable of both storing and proving energy.
379
Where do all cells originate from
a single fertilized cell
380
What are important characteristics that are important to each cell type?
cell metabolism and energy use, synthesis of molecules, communication between cells, and inheritence and reproduction.
381
What is the plasma membrane?
cell membrane that forms the outer boundary of the cell, through which the cell interacts with its external environment.
382
What does the nucleus do?
directs cell activities
383
What is the plasma membrane?
lipid bilayer composed of phospholopids and cholesterol.
384
What is the function of the plasma membrane?
functions are the outer boundary of the cell. control the entry and exit of substances. receptor proteins function in intercellular communication.
385
What is the nucleus
a double membrane with nuclear pores. contains chromatin which condenses to become visiable mitotic chromosomes during cell division.
386
What is the function of the nucleus?
it is the control center of the cell. DNA within the nucleus regulates protein synthesis
387
What is the purpose of rough endoplasmic reticulum
synthesizes proteins, which are usually transported to Gogli apparatus.
388
What is the purpose of cytoplasmic organelles?
serves as site of protein synthesis.
389
What are cytoplasmic organelles?
ribosomal RNA and proteins form large and small subunits
390
What is the role of lipids in the body
protection
insulation
regulation
vitamins
structure
energy
391
What are the roles of protein in the body
regulation
transport
protection
contraction
structure
energy
392
What is the rough endoplasmic reticulum
membranous tubules and flattened sacs with attached ribosomes.
393
What is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
membranous tubules and flattened sacs with no attached ribosomes.
394
What is the golgi apparatus
flattened membrane sacs stacked on each other
395
What is the purpose of golgi apparatus
modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids for secretion or internal use.
396
What is a lysosome
pinched off golgi apparatus
397
What is the purpose of lysosomes
contains digestive systems
398
What is purpose of peroxisome
serves as one site of lipid and amino acid degradation.
399
What is purpose of proteasomes
break down proteins in cytoplasm
400
What is proteasomes
tubelike protein complexes in the cytoplasm
401
What is the purpose of mitochondria
are major sites of ATP synthesis when oxygen is available.
402
What is the purpose of centrioles
serve as centers for microtubule formation. determine cell polarity during cell division.
403
What is purpose of cilia
move material over the surface of cells
404
What is purpose of microvilli
increase surface area of the plasma membrane for absorption and secretion.
405
How do cells communicate with each other?
chemical and electrical signals
406
How do muscle cells respond to chemical signals
contracting or relaxing
407
What are two types of basic microscopes
light and electron
408
What happens with a transmission electron microscope?
a beam of electrons is passed through an object
409
What happens with a scanning electron microscope
beams of electrons is reflected off the surface of the object.
410
What happens with an atomic force miscroscope?
scans the sample using a tiny mechanical probe that can be deflected by small forces between the probe and sample.
411
What are intracellular substances
those inside the cell.
412
What are extracellular substances
those outside the cell
413
what is the membrane potential
an electric charge difference across the plasma membrane
414
is the outside or the inside of the plasma membrane positively charged
outside.
415
What does the plasma membrane primarily consist of?
lipids and proteins, and carbohydrates
416
What are the two types of lipids
phospholipids
cholesterol
417
lipid bilayer
a double layer of phospholipid molecules
418
What is lydrophilic
attracted to water
419
What is hydrophobic
avoid water
420
What does the fluid mosaic model describe
the plasma membrane as being rigid nor static in structure.
421
What are several importances in the nature of the lipid bilayer
it provides an important means of distributing molecules within plasma membrane
slight damage to the membrane can be repaired because the phospholipids tend to reassemble around damaged sites
the fluid nature of the lipid bilayer enables membranes to fuse with one another.
422
What is a major factor in determining the fluid nature of a membrane
the amount of cholesterol in a particular plasma membrane.
423
What is an important function of the cholesterol
it limits the movement of phospholipids, providing stability to the plasma membrane.
424
Integral membrane proteins
penetrate deeply into the lipid bilayer, in many cases extending from one surface to the other.
425
Peripheral membrane proteins
attached to either the inner or the outer surface of the lipid bilayer.
426
What do integral membrane proteins consist of
regions made up of amino acids with hydrophobic R groups and other regions of amino acids with hydrophilic R groups.
427
Protein function is determined by what
the proteins chemical characteristics, three dimensional shape of the protein
428
What can membrane proteins function as
marker molecules, attachment, transport, receptor, enzymes.
429
What is the function of marker molecules
allow cells to identify other cells or other molecules.
430
What is function of attachment proteins.
anchor cells to other cells or to extracellular molecules
431
What is function of transport proteins
form passageways through the plasma membrane allowing specific ions or molecules to enter or exit the cell
432
What is function of carrier proteins
move ions or molecules across the membrane. binding of specific chemical to carrier proteins causes changes in the shape of the carrier proteins
433
What is function of ATP powered pumps
move specific ions or molecules across the membrane require ATP molecules to function.
434
What is function of receptor proteins
function as binding sites for chemical signals in the extracellular fluid.
435
What is function of enzymes
catalyze chemical reactions either inside or outside cells.
436
What are glycoproteins
proteins with attached carbohydrates.
437
What are glycolipids
lipids with attached carbohydrates
438
What are attachment proteins
integral proteins that allow cells to attach to other cells or to extracellular molecules
439
What are cadherins
proteins that attach cells to other cells.
440
What are two examples of attachment proteins
cadherins and integrins
441
What are integrins
proteins that attach cells to extracellular molecules.
442
What are transport proteins
integral proteins that allow ions or molecules to move from one side of the plasma membrane to the other.
443
What are the three characteristics of transport proteins
specificity
competition
saturation
444
What does specificity mean?
that each transport protein binds to an transports only a certain type of molecule or ion.
445
What is competition
the result of molecules with similar shape binding to the transport protein
446
an imaging tech created from sonor technology
ultrasound
447
microscopic examination of a frozen tissue specimen is an application of ....
histology
448
what is a cell
the basic structural and functional units of all living orgnisms
449
the changes an organism undergoes through time
development
450
What does saturation mean
that the rate of movement of molecules across the membrane is limited by the number of available transport proteins.
451
What are the three major classes of transport proteins
channel proteins
carrier proteins
Atp powered pumps
452
What are channel proteins
one or more integral membrane proteins arranged so that they form a tiny channel through the plasma membrane.
453
What determines which types of ions can pass through the channel
the charges in the hydrophilic part of the channel proteins.
454
What do channel proteins include
leak ion channels and gated ion channels
455
What are leak ion channels
nongated ion channels - always open and are responsible for the plasma membranes permeability to ions when the plasma membrane is at rest.
456
What are gated ion channels
open and close depending on certian conditions of the cell.
457
What does ligand mean
a generic term for any chemical signal molecule used by cells to communicate with each other
458
What are ligand gated ion channels
ion channels that respond to ligand signals.
459
What are voltage gated ion channels
gated ion channels open or close when there is a change in membrane potential.
460
What is cystic fibrosis
a genetic disorder that affects chloride ion channels.
461
What are carrier protiens
integral membrane proteins that move ions or molecules from one side of the plasma membrane to the other.
462
What does the binding of the specific ion or molecule cause
the carrier proteins to change shape and release the bound ion or molecule to the other side of the plasma membrane.
463
In what three ways can the movement of ions or molecules by carrier proteins be classified
uniport
symport
antiport
464
What uniport
the movement of one specific ion or molecule across the membrane
465
What is symport
the movement of two different ions or molecules in the same direction across the plasma membrane
466
What is antiport
the movement of two differnt ions or molecules in opposite directions across the plasma membrane.
467
What are ATP powered pumps
transport proteins that require cellular energy to move specific ions or molecules from one side of the plasma membrane to the other.
468
What are receptor proteins
membrane proteins or glycoprotiens that have an exposed receptor site on the outer cell surface.
469
What causes a change in the permeability of the plasma membrane to the specific ions passing through the ion channels.
when checmical signals, or ligands, bind to these receptors, the combination alters the three dimensional structure of the protiens of the ion channels, causing the cannels either to open or to close.
470
The G protein complex consists of what three proteins
alpha, beta, gamma
471
When does the G protein complex interact with a receptor protein
when a chemical signal is bound to the receptor protein.
472
an activated subunit can stimulate a cell response in what three ways.
by means of intercellular chemical signals
the opening of ion channels in the plasma membrane
the activation of enzymes associated with the plasma membrane.
473
The cells survival depends on the maintenence of what differences
intracellular material has a different composition than the extracellular material.
474
What is a vesicle
a small membrane bound sac.
475
What is osmosis
water diffuses across a selectively permeable membrane
476
What is diffusion
random movement of molecules results in net movement from areas of higher to lower concentration.
477
What is active transport
ATP powered pumps bind to substances and move them across the plasma membrane
478
What is secondary active transport
Ions are moved across the plasma membrane by active transport, which establishes an ion concetration gradient
479
What is endocytosis
the plasma membrane forms a vesicle aroudn the substances to be transported and the vesicle is taken into the cell
480
What happens during passive membrane transport
the cell does not expend metabolic energy
481
What does passive membrane transport include
diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
482
What is a solution
consists of one or more substances dissolved in the predominant liquid or gas.
483
What is diffusion
the movement of solutes from an area of higher solute concentration to an area of lower solute concentration.
484
When does a concetration difference occur
when the solutes are not evenly distributed in a solvent
485
What is the concentration gradient
the concetration difference between two points, divided by the distance between the two points.
486
what causes the concetration gradient to increase
increase the concetration difference between the two points or decreasing the distance between the two points.
487
What is the rate of diffusion influenced by
the magnitude of the concentration gradient, the temp of the solution, the size of diffusing molecules , the viscocity of solvent.
488
What happens with the greater concentration gradient
the greater the number of solute particles moving from a higher to a lower solute concentration.
489
What is viscocity
is a measure of a fluids resitance to flow.
490
What is osmosis
the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane , such as a plasma membrane.
491
Why is osmosis important to cells
large volume changes caused by water movement disrupt normal cell function.
492
What is competition
the result of molecules with similar shape binding to the transport protein
493
What is osmotic pressure
the force required to prevent water from moving by osmosis across a selectively permeable membrane.
494
What are three terms to describe the osmotic pressure of solutions
isosmotic, hypersmotic, hyposmotic.
495
What is hypersmotic
if one solution hasa greater concentration of solute particles, and therefore a greater osmotic pressure than another solution.
496
What is crenation
the cell shrinks
497
What does lysis mean
a cell swells
498
What does osmotic refer to
the concentration of solutions
499
What does tonic refer to
the tendency of cells t swell or shrink
500
What is mediated transport
membrane transport process by which membran transport proteins mediate, or assist, the movement of large, water soluble molecules or electrically charged molecules or ions across the plasma membrane.
501
What is facilitated diffusion
mediated transport process that moves substances into or out of cells from a higher to a lower concentration.
502
What proteins carry out facilitated diffusion
carrier and channel
503
What is active transport
a mediated transport process that requires energy provided by ATP
504
What is secondary active transport
the active transport of an ion, establishing a concentration gradient, with a higher concentration of the ions outside the cell.
505
What is vesicular transport
the movement of larger volumes of substances across teh plasma membrane through the formation or release of vesicles, membrane bound sacs, in cytoplasm.
506
What are the two types of vesicular transport
endocytosis and exocytosis
507
What is endocytosis
occurs when material moves trhough the plasma membrane and into the cytoplasm by the formation of a vesicle.
508
What are the two types of endocytosis
phagocytosis
pinocytosis
509
What are phagocytosis importnat for
eliminating harmful substances from the body
510
pinocytosis
cell drinking
contain molecules dissolved in liquid rather than particles.
511
What is hypercholesterolemia
a common genetic disorder characterized by the reduction in or absence of low density lipoprotein receptor on cell surfaces, which interferes with the receptor mediated endocytosis of LDL cholesterol.
512
What are two examples of exocytosis
the secretion of digestive enzymes by the pancreas and secretion of mucus by the salivary glands
513
What is cytoplasm
the cellular material outside the nucleus but inside the plasma membrane, is about half cytosol and half organelles.
514
What is the cytosol
the fluid portion of the cytoplasm
515
What is the cytoskeleton
supports the cell and holds the nucleus and other organelles in place
516
The cytoskeleton consists of what three groups of proteins
microtubules, actin filaments, intermediate filaments.
517
What are microtubules
hollow tubes composed primarily of protein units called tubulin.
518
What are microtubules involved in
cell division and in transport of intracellular materials.
519
What are actin filaments
are small fibrils, about 8nm in diameter that form bundles, sheets, or networks in cytoplasm.
520
What are intermediate filaments
protein fibers that provide mechanical strength to cells
521
What are cytoplasmic inclusions
aggregates of chemicals either produced or taken in by the cell
522
What are lipochromes?
pigments that increase in amount with age.
523
What are organelles
structures within cells that are specialized for particular functions.
524
What is the largest organelle of the cell
nucleus
525
What are the number of cytoplasmic organelles related to
specific structure and function of cell
526
What is the nucleus
a large membrane bound structure located near the center of the cell.
527
What is the nuclear envelope
two membranes separated by a space
528
What are nuclear pores
pore like openings in the nuclear envelope where the inner and outer membranes fuse. molecules move between the nucleus and the cytoplasm through these openings
529
What are chromosomes
discrete structures that contain DNA and associated proteins.
530
What is chromatin
chromospmes dispersed throughout the nucleus as delicate filaments
531
What does DNA determine
the structural and functional characteristis of the cell by specifying the structure of proteins.
532
What are the types of RNA molecules
messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA>
533
What is the nucleolus
a dense region within the nucleus
534
What do free ribosomes do?
synthesize proteins used inside the cell
535
What does the endoplasmic reticulum consist of
broad, flattened, interconnecting sacs and tubules.
536
What is the cisternae
the interior spaces of those sacs and tubules and isolated from the rest of the cytoplasm
537
What is detoxification?
the processes by which enzymes act on chemicals and drugs to change their structure and reduce their toxicity
538
What is autophagy
lysosomes digest the organelles of the cell that are no longer functional.
539
What are peroxisomes
membrane bound vesicles that are smaller than lysosomes.
540
What are proteasomes
large protein complexes containing enzymes that break down and recycle other proteins within the cell.
541
What is the matrix
the material located inside the inner membrane
542
What is Tay-Sachs disease?
a rare genetic disorder caused by the inability of lysosomal enzymes to break down gangliosides.
543
Where is mitochondria more numerous
in areas where ATP is used.
544
What is the centrosome
a specialized zone of cytoplasm close of the nucleus
545
What is inside of the centrosome
two centrioles
546
What is cilia
structures that project from teh surface of cells and are capable of movement.
547
Where is cilia numerous
on surface cells that line the respitory tract and the female reproductive tract.
548
What are microvilli
cylindrically shaped extensions of the plasma membrane.
549
Where is microvilli found
on the cells of intestine, kidney, and other ares where absorption is an important function.
550
What is heredity
the transmission of genetic traits from parent to offspring
551
What is each gene
a segment of DNA molecule that specifies the structure of an RNA molecule.
552
What is gene expression
the production of RNA and or proteins from the infrotmation stored in DNA
553
What do transfer RNA do
carry the amino acids to the ribosomes.
554
What is transcription
making a copy of a small part of the stored information in DNA
555
What is translation
converting that copied information into a protein.
556
When does transcription occur
when a section of a DNA molecule unwinds and its complementary strands seperate.
557
What is RNA polymerase
an enzyme that synthesizes the complementary RNA molecule from DNA.
558
What does a promoter signal
the begining of the gene and site for initial RNA polymerase binding.
559
What does the attachment of RNA polymerase cause
a portion of the DNA molecule to unwind, exposing the DNA nucleotide sequence fro that region of the template strand.
560
What is the region between the promoter and termination of transcription called
gene
561
What are exons
regions of the mRNA that do code for proteins
562
what is a pre-mRNA
an mRNA that contains introns
563
What two things are added to the ends of a mRNA
7methyguanosine cap and poly-a tail
564
What happens in alternative splicing
various combination of exons are incorporated into mRNA. allows for a single gene to produce more than one specific protein.
565
What is genetic code
the information contained in mRNA and it relates the nucleotide sequence of mRNA to the amino acid sequence of a protein.
566
What is codon
mRNA organized into three nucleotide sequences.
567
What is the start codon
AUG
568
What are end codons
UAA, UGA< UAG
569
What does translation require
ribosomes and tRNA
570
What is the function of tRNA
to match a specific amino acid to a specific codon of mRNA
571
What is an anticodon
three nucleotides that are complementary to a particular codon of mRNA
572
What is a polyribosome
a cluster of ribosoes attached to the same mRNA
573
What are the two stages of the cell cycle
interphase and cell division
574
What stages happen during cell division
mitosis, division of nucleus, cytokinesis, division of cytoplasm
575
What happens in interphase
the cell prepares to divide
576
What is DNA replication
the process in which the two strands of a DNA molecule seperate and each serves as the template for making complementary new strands of nucleotides.
577
What is a diploid number
each cell contains a specific number of chromosomes.
578
What is a haploid number
half the diploid number
579
What is mitosis
the division of a cells nucleus into two new nuclei, each containing the same amount and type of DNA as original nucleus.
580
What is mitotic chromosomes
densely coiled chromatin.
581
What is a chromatid
a copy of a chromososme
582
What is kinetochore
a protein structure that binds the centromere and provides a point of attachment for microtubules that will seperate and move the chromatids during mitosis
583
What happens in prophase
the chromatin condenses to form mitotic chromosomes
584
What happens in metaphase
the chromosomes align near the center of the cell
585
What happens in anaphase
the chromatids seperate.
586
What happens in telophase
nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes to form two seperate nuclei
587
What is cytokinesis
the division of the cells cytoplasm to produce two new cells.
588
What is the cleavage furrow
indentation of the plasma membrane that forms midway between the centroiles.
589
When is cytokinesis complete
when the membranes of the halves seperate at the cleavage furrow to form two seperate cells.
590
What is Apoptosis
is a normal process by which cell number within various tissues adjust and controled
591
What is one of the major sources of DNA damage
free radicals- atoms with an unparied electron.
