Cumulative Ex2 Flashcards
From study guide (227 cards)
1
Q
What are ribozymes?
A
Enzyme-like RNA molecules that catalyze many different reactions
Ribozymes provide insight into the origins of life and the role of RNA.
2
Q
What is the Phanerozoic?
A
The eon that encompasses multicellular eukaryotic life
It is divided into three eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
3
Q
What are stromatolites?
A
Oldest known fossils; rock-like structures formed by microbial mats
They provide evidence for early life on Earth.
4
Q
When did prokaryotes originate?
A
Around 3.5 billion years ago
Prokaryotes are the earliest known forms of life on Earth.
5
Q
How did the oxygenation of Earth occur?
A
Through oxygenic photosynthesis by prokaryotes, primarily cyanobacteria
This process began around 2.4 billion years ago.
6
Q
What is the Serial Endosymbiosis theory?
A
The theory that mitochondria and plastids originated from small prokaryotes living within larger host cells
It explains the origin of eukaryotic cells.
7
Q
What is the origin of multicellular eukaryotes?
A
Multicellular eukaryotes likely evolved from simple unicellular ancestors
This process allowed for increased complexity and diversity.
8
Q
What is the Ediacaran biota?
A
An assemblage of larger and more diverse soft-bodied organisms that lived from 635 to 541 million years ago
Represents some of the earliest complex life forms.
9
Q
What is plate tectonics?
A
The theory explaining the movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates
It influences geological processes, including continental drift.
10
Q
What is the Cambrian explosion?
A
The rapid appearance of fossils resembling modern phyla during the Cambrian period
It marks a significant increase in biodiversity.
11
Q
What is the Permian extinction?
A
The largest mass extinction event, resulting in 84% of species disappearing
Occurred around 252 million years ago.
12
Q
What is the Cretaceous mass extinction?
A
A mass extinction event that led to the demise of the dinosaurs
It occurred approximately 66 million years ago.
13
Q
What is systematics?
A
The discipline that classifies organisms and determines their evolutionary relationships
It uses various data types, including fossil and genetic data.
14
Q
What is taxonomy?
A
The ordered division and naming of organisms
It includes hierarchical classification.
15
Q
What is phylogeny?
A
The evolutionary history of a species or group of related species
It is often depicted through phylogenetic trees.
16
Q
What is maximum parsimony?
A
An approach that assumes the tree requiring the fewest evolutionary events is the most likely
It is used in constructing phylogenetic trees.
17
Q
What is the difference between homology and analogy?
A
Homology refers to shared ancestry, while analogy refers to similar function without common ancestry
Example: bat wings and bird wings.
18
Q
What are monophyletic, paraphyletic, and polyphyletic groups?
A
Monophyletic: includes an ancestor and all descendants; paraphyletic: includes an ancestor and some descendants; polyphyletic: includes species from different ancestors
These classifications are important in systematics.
19
Q
What are shared derived and shared ancestral characters?
A
Shared derived: evolutionary novelties unique to a clade; shared ancestral: characters that originated in an ancestor of the taxon
They help differentiate between groups.
20
Q
What is horizontal gene transfer?
A
The transfer of genes between organisms in a manner other than traditional reproduction
It plays a significant role in bacterial evolution.
21
Q
What are the three domains of life?
A
- Bacteria
- Archaea
- Eukarya
This classification reflects the fundamental differences in cellular organization.
22
Q
What is peptidoglycan?
A
A polymer that forms the cell wall of many bacteria
It provides structural support and protection.
23
Q
What are the characteristics of gram stain?
A
Gram-positive: thick peptidoglycan layer; Gram-negative: thin peptidoglycan layer and outer membrane
This classification helps in identifying bacterial types.
24
Q
What are fimbriae, sex pili, and capsules?
A
- Fimbriae: hair-like structures for adhesion
- Sex pili: structures for conjugation
- Capsule: protective layer around some bacteria
These features enhance bacterial survival and reproduction.
25
What are plasmids?
Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria
## Footnote
They can carry genes for antibiotic resistance.
26
What is transformation in bacteria?
The uptake of foreign DNA from the environment by a bacterial cell
## Footnote
It contributes to genetic diversity.
27
What is transduction?
The process by which bacteriophages transfer genetic material between bacteria
## Footnote
It is another mechanism of horizontal gene transfer.
28
What is conjugation in bacteria?
The direct transfer of DNA between two bacterial cells through a physical connection
## Footnote
It often involves the F factor.
29
What is a phototroph?
An organism that obtains energy from light
## Footnote
Examples include plants and some bacteria.
30
What is a chemotroph?
An organism that obtains energy from chemical compounds
## Footnote
Examples include many bacteria and archaea.
31
What is an autotroph?
An organism that can produce its own food from inorganic substances
## Footnote
Includes plants, algae, and some bacteria.
32
What is a heterotroph?
An organism that obtains food by consuming other organisms
## Footnote
Includes animals, fungi, and many bacteria.
33
What is symbiosis?
A close ecological relationship between two or more different species
## Footnote
Includes mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
34
What is mutualism?
A symbiotic relationship where both species benefit
## Footnote
Example: bees and flowering plants.
35
What is commensalism?
A symbiotic relationship where one species benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed
## Footnote
Example: barnacles on whales.
36
What is parasitism?
A symbiotic relationship where one species benefits at the expense of another
## Footnote
Example: tapeworms in the intestines of animals.
37
What is a pathogen?
An organism that causes disease
## Footnote
Examples include bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
38
What is an exotoxin?
A toxic substance secreted by bacteria into their surroundings
## Footnote
It can cause damage to host cells.
39
What is an endotoxin?
A component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria that can trigger strong immune responses
## Footnote
It is released when bacteria die.
40
What is a mixotroph?
An organism that can use both photosynthesis and heterotrophy to obtain energy
## Footnote
Example: some protists and plants.
41
What is secondary endosymbiosis?
The process where a eukaryotic cell engulfs another eukaryotic cell that has already undergone primary endosymbiosis
## Footnote
This is how some algae acquired chloroplasts.
42
What are the four supergroups of protists?
* Excavata
* SAR
* Archaeplastida
* Unikonta
## Footnote
Each supergroup has distinct characteristics and examples.
43
What are alveolates?
A group of protists characterized by the presence of alveoli, small membrane-bound sacs beneath the plasma membrane
## Footnote
Includes ciliates, dinoflagellates, and apicomplexans.
44
What is an apical complex?
A specialized structure found in apicomplexans that helps them invade host cells
## Footnote
It is crucial for their parasitic lifestyle.
45
What are apicomplexans?
A group of parasitic protists, including Plasmodium, which causes malaria
## Footnote
They have complex life cycles involving multiple hosts.
46
What is biofilm?
A community of microorganisms that attach to surfaces and encase themselves in a protective matrix
## Footnote
Biofilms can form on natural and artificial surfaces.
47
What are brown algae?
A group of multicellular protists that are primarily marine and include species like kelp
## Footnote
They are important in marine ecosystems.
48
What is a cellular slime mold?
A type of protist that can exist as single cells but can aggregate to form multicellular structures when food is scarce
## Footnote
Example: Dictyostelium.
49
What are charophyte green algae?
A group of green algae closely related to land plants
## Footnote
They share derived characteristics with land plants.
50
What is chlorophyta?
A division of green algae that includes both unicellular and multicellular species
## Footnote
They are important photosynthetic organisms in aquatic environments.
51
What are ciliates?
A group of protists characterized by the presence of cilia used for movement and feeding
## Footnote
Example: Paramecium.
52
What is cladistics?
An approach to systematics that classifies organisms based on common ancestry
## Footnote
It emphasizes measurable characteristics.
53
What is a clade?
A group of species that includes an ancestral species and all its descendants
## Footnote
Clades can be nested within larger clades.
54
What is a crystalline rod?
A structure found in some protists that helps in light perception
## Footnote
It is associated with photosensitivity.
55
What are diatoms?
A group of unicellular algae with silica cell walls
## Footnote
They are important primary producers in aquatic ecosystems.
56
What are dinoflagellates?
A group of protists known for their two flagella and often responsible for harmful algal blooms
## Footnote
They can produce toxins, leading to red tides.
57
What is an endospore?
A thick-walled protective spore that can survive harsh conditions
## Footnote
Produced by some bacteria to ensure survival.
58
What is Entamoeba?
A genus of protozoan parasites that can cause dysentery in humans
## Footnote
Example: Entamoeba histolytica.
59
What are euglenids?
A group of protists that have both plant-like and animal-like characteristics
## Footnote
They can photosynthesize and also consume organic matter.
60
What are forams?
A group of protists with porous shells made of calcium carbonate
## Footnote
They are important in geological studies and as indicators of environmental change.
61
What are holdfasts?
Structures that anchor multicellular algae to substrates
## Footnote
They are essential for stability in aquatic environments.
62
What is a kinetoplast?
A large, organized mass of DNA found in the mitochondria of kinetoplastids
## Footnote
It is involved in cellular functions.
63
What are kinetoplastids?
A group of protists characterized by the presence of a kinetoplast
## Footnote
Example: Trypanosoma, the causative agent of sleeping sickness.
64
What are macronuclei?
Large nuclei found in ciliates that control non-reproductive cell functions
## Footnote
They are distinct from micronuclei.
65
What are micronuclei?
Small nuclei found in ciliates that are involved in reproduction
## Footnote
They play a role in genetic exchange.
66
What are mitosomes?
Reduced mitochondria found in some anaerobic eukaryotes
## Footnote
They are involved in iron-sulfur cluster assembly.
67
What are nucleomorphs?
Remnants of a nucleus from a eukaryotic algal endosymbiont found in some protists
## Footnote
They provide evidence for secondary endosymbiosis.
68
What are obligate aerobes?
Organisms that require oxygen for survival
## Footnote
They rely on aerobic respiration.
69
What are obligate anaerobes?
Organisms that cannot survive in the presence of oxygen
## Footnote
They rely on anaerobic respiration.
70
What is phycoerythrin?
A red pigment found in red algae that allows them to photosynthesize in deep water
## Footnote
It absorbs blue light.
71
What is a plasmodial slime mold?
A type of slime mold that consists of a single cell with multiple nuclei
## Footnote
It can move and grow as a giant cell.
72
What is Plasmodium?
A genus of parasitic protists that cause malaria in humans
## Footnote
It is transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes.
73
What is plasmolysis?
The process in which cells lose water in a hypertonic solution, causing the cell membrane to pull away from the cell wall
## Footnote
It can lead to cell death.
74
What is a polytomy?
A branch point in a phylogenetic tree where more than two descendant groups emerge
## Footnote
It indicates uncertainty in evolutionary relationships.
75
What are pseudopodia?
Temporary, foot-like extensions of a cell used for movement and feeding
## Footnote
Common in amoebas and some protists.
76
What are radiolarians?
A group of protists with intricate silica skeletons
## Footnote
They are important in marine ecosystems and sediment formation.
77
What are red algae?
A group of marine algae that contain phycoerythrin, giving them a red color
## Footnote
They are important for coral reefs and have commercial uses.
78
What is a red tide?
A harmful algal bloom caused by dinoflagellates that can produce toxins
## Footnote
It can harm marine life and human health.
79
What is a stipe?
The stalk-like structure of a seaweed or mushroom
## Footnote
It supports the fronds or cap.
80
What are tests?
Shells or protective coverings of certain protists, such as foraminifera
## Footnote
They can provide insights into past environments.
81
What is thallus?
The vegetative body of a fungus or algae
## Footnote
It is not differentiated into roots, stems, or leaves.
82
What is Trichomonas?
A genus of parasitic protists known for causing sexually transmitted infections
## Footnote
Example: Trichomonas vaginalis.
83
What is Trypanosoma?
A genus of parasitic protists that cause diseases such as sleeping sickness
## Footnote
Transmitted by tsetse flies.
84
What are tubulinids?
A group of amoeboid protists characterized by their use of pseudopodia for movement
## Footnote
Example: Amoeba proteus.
85
What is sporopollenin?
A durable polymer that protects the spores and pollen of plants
## Footnote
It is resistant to decay and environmental stress.
86
What is lignin?
A complex organic polymer found in the cell walls of many plants
## Footnote
It provides structural support and rigidity.
87
What is a phragmoplast?
A structure that forms during cell division in plants, guiding the formation of the cell plate
## Footnote
It is crucial for cytokinesis.
88
What is alternation of generations?
The life cycle of plants involving both multicellular diploid (sporophyte) and multicellular haploid (gametophyte) stages
## Footnote
This cycle alternates between the two forms.
89
What are gametophyte and sporophyte?
* Gametophyte: the haploid stage producing gametes
* Sporophyte: the diploid stage producing spores
## Footnote
Both stages are crucial for plant reproduction.
90
What are embryophytes?
Land plants that develop from embryos
## Footnote
They include all groups of terrestrial plants.
91
What are archegonia and antheridia?
* Archegonia: female reproductive structures in plants
* Antheridia: male reproductive structures in plants
## Footnote
They produce gametes for fertilization.
92
What is an apical meristem?
A region of actively dividing cells at the tips of roots and shoots in plants
## Footnote
It is responsible for primary growth.
93
What are bryophytes?
Non-vascular plants, such as mosses, that reproduce via spores
## Footnote
They have a dominant gametophyte stage.
94
What are xylem and phloem?
* Xylem: vascular tissue that transports water and minerals
* Phloem: vascular tissue that transports sugars and nutrients
## Footnote
Both are essential for plant nutrition and growth.
95
What are seeds?
Structures that contain the embryo and provide nourishment for the developing plant
## Footnote
They are crucial for reproduction in seed plants.
96
What is endosperm?
A tissue in seeds that provides nourishment to the developing embryo
## Footnote
It results from double fertilization in angiosperms.
97
What is pollen?
The male gametophyte in seed plants, responsible for fertilization
## Footnote
It is carried by wind or animals to female structures.
98
What are the differences between gymnosperms and angiosperms?
* Gymnosperms: seed plants with exposed seeds (e.g., conifers)
* Angiosperms: seed plants with enclosed seeds (e.g., flowering plants)
## Footnote
Angiosperms are more diverse and dominate most terrestrial ecosystems.
99
What is flower anatomy?
The structure of flowers includes sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels
## Footnote
Each part has specific functions in reproduction.
100
What is an ovule?
The structure in seed plants that develops into a seed after fertilization
## Footnote
It contains the female gamete.
101
What are fruits?
Mature ovaries that contain seeds and aid in their dispersal
## Footnote
Fruits can be fleshy or dry.
102
What does the fossil record show?
Macro-evolutionary changes over large time scales
## Footnote
It provides evidence for the history of life on Earth.
103
What is the significance of mass extinctions?
They have long-term impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem structure
## Footnote
Mass extinctions create opportunities for adaptive radiations.
104
What are the stages of abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules?
* Abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules
* Joining of these into macromolecules
* Packaging of molecules into protocells
* Maintaining internal chemicals different from surroundings
## Footnote
These stages are theorized to lead to the origin of life.
105
What energy sources may have contributed to early organic compound synthesis?
* Lightning
* UV radiation
* Deep sea hydrothermal vents
* Alkaline vents
* Carbonaceous meteorites
## Footnote
These sources could have facilitated the formation of life.
106
What is the significance of the Miller-Urey experiment?
It demonstrated the abiotic synthesis of organic molecules under conditions thought to resemble early Earth
## Footnote
The experiment produced amino acids, supporting the hypothesis of life's origin.
107
What is the geologic record divided into?
* Archaean Eon
* Proterozoic Eon
* Phanerozoic Eon
## Footnote
Each eon represents significant milestones in Earth's history.
108
What is the oxygen revolution?
The period when oxygen produced by photosynthetic prokaryotes began to accumulate in Earth's atmosphere
## Footnote
This led to significant changes in Earth's environment and life forms.
109
What is the Endosymbiotic Theory?
The theory that mitochondria and plastids originated from free-living prokaryotes that were engulfed by ancestral eukaryotic cells
## Footnote
It explains the evolution of complex cells.
110
What is the Cambrian period known for?
The sudden appearance of fossils resembling modern phyla and the first evidence of predator-prey interactions
## Footnote
It marks a pivotal point in the history of life.
111
What role did tectonic events play in mass extinctions?
They altered habitats, driving some species to extinction while providing new opportunities for others
## Footnote
Plate tectonics can reshape ecosystems dramatically.
112
What is the K-T boundary event?
The mass extinction event between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods, believed to be caused by a meteor impact
## Footnote
It led to the extinction of the dinosaurs.
113
What is phylogenetic nomenclature?
A formal set of rules governing the naming of clades, including the common ancestor and all descendants
## Footnote
It is distinct from traditional rank-based nomenclature.
114
What does Maximum Likelihood assume?
Given certain rules about how DNA changes over time, it finds the tree that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events
## Footnote
It is used in constructing phylogenetic trees.
115
What is the significance of age in building a phylogenetic tree?
It refers to the age of individuals within the group that you're comparing.
116
What are the two methods that can narrow down the best tree in a large data set?
Maximum Parsimony & Maximum Likelihood.
117
What does Maximum Parsimony assume?
The tree that requires the fewest evolutionary events is the most likely.
118
What are evolutionary events defined as?
Appearances of shared derived characters.
119
What does Maximum Likelihood reflect?
The most likely sequence of evolutionary events based on certain rules about how DNA changes over time.
120
What classification system did early taxonomists develop?
They classified all species as plants or animals, then into kingdoms, and then developed the 3 domain system.
121
What are the three domains of life?
Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya.
122
What is horizontal gene transfer?
Movement of genes from one genome to another.
123
What is a genome?
A complete set of DNA in an organism, including all of its genes.
124
How do prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes?
Most prokaryotes are unicellular or colonial and much smaller than eukaryotic cells.
125
What is the size range of prokaryotic cells?
.5-5μm.
126
What is the size range of eukaryotic cells?
10-100μm.
127
What is a microbiome?
Any number of existing organisms that exist within that environment.
128
What is the function of the prokaryotic cell wall?
Maintains cell shape, protects the cell, and prevents bursting in hypotonic environments.
129
What is peptidoglycan?
A network of sugar polymers cross-linked by polypeptides found in bacterial cell walls.
130
What are eukaryotic cell walls made of?
Cellulose or chitin.
131
What do Archaea lack in their cell walls?
Peptidoglycan.
132
What is the purpose of a gram stain?
To classify species into gram-positive and gram-negative groups based on cell wall composition.
133
What characterizes Gram-negative bacteria?
Less peptidoglycan and an outer membrane that can be toxic; more likely to be antibiotic resistant.
134
What is a capsule in prokaryotes?
A polysaccharide/protein layer that covers many prokaryotes.
135
What are endospores?
Structures found in some species to endure harsh conditions, can be dormant for centuries.
136
What are fimbriae?
Short protein appendages that extend from the bacterial cell surface, allowing adherence to surfaces.
137
What is taxis in prokaryotes?
The ability to move toward or away from certain stimuli.
138
What are the two types of taxis?
Chemotaxis and phototaxis.
139
How do most motile bacteria move?
Using flagella that are structurally and functionally different from eukaryotic flagella.
140
What does prokaryotic genome typically consist of?
A circular chromosome located in the nucleoid region.
141
What are plasmids?
Smaller rings of DNA found in some prokaryotic species.
142
What contributes to genetic variability in prokaryotes?
Rapid reproduction, mutation, and genetic recombination.
143
What is the typical reproduction method of prokaryotes?
Binary fission.
144
What is transformation in prokaryotes?
The process where a cell takes up and incorporates foreign DNA from the environment.
145
What is transduction?
Movement of genes between bacteria by bacteriophages.
146
What is conjugation?
A process where genetic material is transferred between bacterial cells, usually one-way.
147
What is the F factor?
A circular plasmid required for the production of sex pili.
148
What are R plasmids?
Plasmids that carry genes for antibiotic resistance.
149
What are the two categories of prokaryotic nutrition?
Energy and carbon sources.
150
What is a prototroph?
An organism that obtains energy from light.
151
What is a chemoautotroph?
An organism that obtains energy from inorganic chemicals and carbon from CO2.
152
What is nitrogen fixation?
The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia.
153
What is cooperation in prokaryotes?
Allows them to use environmental resources they couldn’t use as individuals.
154
What is a biofilm?
Surface-coating colonies of multiple prokaryotic species.
155
What role do prokaryotes play in recycling chemical elements?
Chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes function as decomposers.
156
What is symbiosis?
An ecological relationship between organisms.
157
What is mutualism?
A type of symbiosis where both organisms benefit.
158
What is commensalism?
A type of symbiosis where one organism benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed significantly.
159
What is parasitism?
A type of symbiosis where one organism harms but does not kill its host.
160
What are pathogens?
Parasites that cause diseases.
161
What are exotoxins?
Toxins released by living cells, causing disease even if the producing prokaryotes are not present.
162
What are endotoxins?
Toxins released only when bacteria die and their cell walls break down.
163
What is bioremediation?
The use of organisms to remove pollutants from the environment.
164
What is a protist?
An informal name for a group of mostly unicellular eukaryotes.
165
Why are protists not classified as a valid kingdom?
They are not monophyletic but paraphyletic.
166
What are photoautotrophs?
Protists that contain chloroplasts and obtain energy from light.
167
What is the endosymbiotic theory?
Mitochondria evolved by endosymbiosis of an aerobic prokaryote.
168
What are the four supergroups of eukaryotes?
Excavate, SAR, Archaeplastida, Unikonta.
169
What characterizes the Excavata supergroup?
Members have a ventral feeding groove and flagella.
170
What are diplomonads?
Protists with reduced mitochondria, anaerobic metabolism, and often two equal-sized nuclei.
171
What are parabasalids?
Protists with reduced mitochondria that generate energy anaerobically.
172
What defines the Euglenozoa clade?
Diversity including predatory heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs, and pathogenic parasites.
173
What are kinetoplastids?
Euglenozoa with a single mitochondrion containing a kinetoplast.
174
What is the significance of stramenopiles?
Includes several groups of heterotrophs and certain algae with hairy flagella.
175
What are diatoms?
Unicellular algae with a unique two-part, glass-like wall of hydrated silica.
176
What are brown algae?
The largest and most complex algae, all multicellular, commonly called 'seaweeds'.
177
What are alveolates?
Protists characterized by membrane-bound sacs (alveoli) under their plasma membrane.
178
What are dinoflagellates?
Aquatic mixotrophs/heterotrophs important for marine and freshwater phytoplankton.
179
What are apicomplexans?
Parasites of animals, some causing serious human diseases.
180
What are ciliates?
A large, varied group of protists named for their use of cilia to move/feed.
181
What defines the Rhizarians group?
Defined by DNA similarities, includes forams and radiolarians.
182
What are radiolarians?
Protists with intricate tests usually made of silica.
183
What are foraminiferans (forams)?
Named for porous, multi-chambered shells made of CaCO3.
184
What is Archaeplastida?
A monophyletic group that includes red & green algae, as well as land plants.
185
What gives red algae its reddish color?
Accessory pigment called phycoerythrin.
186
What are chlorophytes?
A group of green algae that are large and complex, most live in freshwater.
187
What are charophyceans?
Multicellular freshwater organisms that are the closest relatives of land plants.
188
What is alternation of generations in plants?
A reproductive cycle where plants alternate between two multicellular stages.
189
What is a gametophyte?
The haploid stage in plants that produces haploid gametes by mitosis.
190
What is a sporophyte?
The diploid stage in plants that produces haploid spores by meiosis.
191
What is the role of placental transfer cells in plants?
They transfer nutrients from parent to embryo.
192
What type of sporophyte do plants give rise to?
Diploid sporophyte
193
What process produces haploid spores in plants?
Meiosis
194
What occurs after fertilization in relation to ploidy level?
Doubling the ploidy level
195
What is the cellular process that reduces ploidy level by half?
Meiosis
196
What type of spores do plants produce?
Haploid spores
197
What are multicellular, dependent embryos retained within?
Tissue of female gametophyte
198
What type of cells transfer nutrients from parent to embryo?
Placental Transfer Cells
199
What term refers to plants that have a dependency of the embryo on the parent?
Embryophytes
200
What are walled spores produced in?
Sporangia
201
What are diploid cells that undergo meiosis to generate haploid spores called?
Sporocytes
202
What polymer makes cells resistant to harsh environments?
Sporopollenin
203
What are organs in which gametes are produced called?
Gametangia
204
What are the female gametangia that produce nonmotile eggs called?
Archegonia
205
What are the male gametangia that are the site of sperm production called?
Antheridia
206
Where are apical meristems located?
At shoots and roots
207
What is the function of stomata in plants?
Allows exchange of gases with the environment
208
What type of association may have helped early land plants obtain nutrients?
Symbiotic Association between fungi & first land plants
209
What type of plants have life cycles dominated by gametophytes?
Bryophytes
210
What is the name of the teeth-like structure that surrounds the opening of a sporangium?
Perisome
211
What type of vascular plants include ferns?
Seedless vascular plants
212
What are the two main types of vascular tissue?
Xylem and phloem
213
What does xylem conduct?
Water and minerals
214
What does phloem distribute?
Sugars, amino acids, and other organic products
215
What are the two types of leaves based on vascular structure?
* Microphylls
* Megaphylls
216
What are clusters of sporangia on the undersides of sporophylls called?
Sori
217
What is the difference between homosporous and heterosporous plants?
* Homosporous: single type of spore
* Heterosporous: produces megaspores and microspores
218
What does a seed consist of?
* An embryo
* Nutrients
* Protective coat
219
What is the purpose of pollen in seeded vascular plants?
Protect male gametophytes and facilitate transport
220
What two structures develop from fertilized ovules?
* Seeds
* Endosperm
221
What are the four phyla of gymnosperms?
* Cycadophyta
* Ginkgophyta
* Gnetophyta
* Coniferophyta
222
What type of angiosperms have one cotyledon?
Monocots
223
What is double fertilization?
Occurs when the pollen tube discharges two sperm into the female gametophyte
224
What is the name of the tissue in seeds that provides nourishment to the embryo?
Endosperm
225
What are the two groups of angiosperms?
* Monocots
* Eudicots
226
What type of root system do monocots usually have?
Fibrous root system
227
What is the typical floral organ arrangement in eudicots?
Multiples of four or five
