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Bio 12 > Digestion > Flashcards

Digestion Flashcards

1
Q

What is digestion

A

The chemical and physical breakdown of food into small soluble molecules

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2
Q

What is absorption

A

The taking into the body of specific compounds

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3
Q

What is elimination

A

The expulsion of materials not absorbed into the body. Excretion, not including urine

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4
Q

What is the 10 step pathway of food

A

1) oral cavity
2) pharynx
3) epiglottis
4) esophagus
5) stomach
6) duodenum
7) small intestine
8) large intestine (+ appendix)
9) rectum
10) anus

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5
Q

What are the 3 main accessory organs and their main function

A

1) liver, makes bile
2) gall bladder, stores bile
3) pancreas, makes some enzymes

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6
Q

What do the substances made in the accessory organs drain through

A

The common bile duct

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7
Q

What is salivary amylase

A

A neutral enzyme produced by the salivary glands that dissolves starch into maltose (disaccharide)

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8
Q

What is pepsin

A

An acidic enzyme produced by the stomach that digests proteins into peptides
Secreted as inactive pepsinogen, turned to pepsin by low pH

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9
Q

What is pancreatic Amylase

A

A basic enzyme produced by the pancreas that digests starch into maltose

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10
Q

What is trypsin

A

A basic enzyme produced by the pancreas that digests peptides into smaller peptides

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11
Q

What is lipase

A

A basic enzyme produced by the pancreas that digests fat into glycerol and fatty acids

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12
Q

What are the peptidases

A

Multiple basic enzymes that are produced by the small intestine that digest peptides into amino acids

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13
Q

What is maltase

A

A basic enzyme produced by the small intestine that digests maltose into glucose

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14
Q

What is nuclease

A

A basic enzyme produced by the small intestine and pancreas that digests nucleic acids into nucleotides

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15
Q

What is Diomedea exulans

A

The wandering Albatross

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16
Q

What needs to be formed in the mouth prior to swallowing

A

A bolus (food ball) made by mouth, teeth, tongue, and saliva

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17
Q

While swallowing how does the esophagus move the bolus to the stomach

A

Through peristalsis, a rhythmic contraction of the esophagus and intestine which runs along the tube and pushes food material in one direction

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18
Q

What is saliva

A

A mixture of water, mucus, and enzymes like salivary amylase

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19
Q

What are the three functions of saliva

A

Lubricates food
Forms the bolus
Salivary amylase digests starch

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20
Q

What controls the digestive juice

A

The nervous system and endocrine system (hormones)

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21
Q

What are gastric juices made of

A

Water, pepsinogen (inactive enzyme pepsin), and hydrochloric acid (HCl)

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22
Q

What cells secrete pepsinogen

A

Chief cells

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23
Q

What cells secrete HCl

A

Parietal cells

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24
Q

What are the 4 functions of gastric juices

A

Lowers pH
Pepsin (activated by low pH) digests large proteins to small amino acid chains (peptides)
Food becomes semi-liquid acid chyme
Kills bacteria

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25
Q

What hormone causes the stomach to release juices

A

Gastric

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26
Q

What can excess acid lead to

A

Ulcers

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27
Q

What does the pancreas release into the duodenum

A

Pancreatic juices
Sodium bicarbonate
4 main enzymes

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28
Q

What does sodium bicarbonate do in the small intestine

A

It acts like a buffer to neutralize the stomach acid bringing the ph to around 7.5 (slightly basic)

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29
Q

What are the four enzymes release by the pancreas + functions

A
  • pancreatic amylase (digests starch)
  • trypsin (digests peptides)
  • lipase (digests lipids)
  • nuclease (digests DNA + RNA to nucleotides)
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30
Q

What 2 hormones control the pancreatic juices

A

CCK (Cholecystokinin)
Secretin

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31
Q

How long does it take the stomach to empty

A

2-6 hours

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32
Q

What is absorbed directly by the stomach

A

Alcohol
Aspirin
Candy
Etc

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33
Q

How long is the small intestine

A

Roughly 6 m

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34
Q

What is the duodenum

A

The first 20-25 cm of the small intestine

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35
Q

What 4 main enzymes are produced in the small intestine + functions

A

Maltase (maltose -> glucose)
Peptidases (Small peptides -> amino acids)
Nucleases (DNA/RNA -> nucleotides)
Lactase (lactose -> glucose)

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36
Q

What happens to the monomers after enzymatic digestion in the small intestine

A

They are absorbed into the blood

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37
Q

What are trophic levels

A

Essentially levels of consumption in an ecosystem
Ex producers
Primary consumers
Secondary consumers
Etc

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38
Q

What is bile

A

A product produced by the liver, stored in gall bladder that enters the duodenum
A chemical with salts that digests fats making it easier for lipase to work on them

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39
Q

What cells produce insulin

A

Islets of langerhans

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40
Q

What does insulin do

A

Acts on the cell membranes opening the protein gates In the membrane to slow glucose to enter from the blood

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41
Q

What are the effects of insulin

A

Lowers blood sugar
Stimulates liver and muscles to convert glucose to glycogen and promotes formation of fats and proteins

42
Q

What other hormone is produced by the islets of langerhans

A

Glucagon which increases blood glucose levels

43
Q

What connects the intestine to the liver

A

The hepatic portal vein

44
Q

What does the hepatic portal vein do

A

Carries blood rich in food to the liver, which gate keeps circulation to keep levels of food constant

45
Q

What does bile do

A

Breaks down fluid of hemoglobin
Emulsifies fats
Breaks down fat drops into tiny homogenous droplets
Stay in suspension
Increases surface area of fat drops for lipase to work on

46
Q

What is the 1st function of the liver

A

Removes poisonous substances to detoxify blood

47
Q

What is the 2nd function of the liver (related to glucose)

A

Stores glucose in the form of glycogen, which is converted back to glucose when blood sugar is low

48
Q

What is the 3rd function of the liver (related to RBC)

A

Destroys old red blood cells (removes bilirubin + excretes into bile)
Converts hemoglobin to bile

49
Q

What is bilirubin

A

A breakdown product of hemoglobin
High amounts can cause jaundice
Due to RBC breakdown

50
Q

What does the liver do with amino acids

A

Produces urea from breakdown of amino acid. Urea is nitrogenous waste that is remove in urin

51
Q

What is the 5th function of the liver (related to proteins)

A

Make blood proteins like albumins and fibrinogen from deamination (breakdown of amino acids)

52
Q

What is gluconeogensis

A

when the liver Converts amino acids to glucose if necessary (gluconeogenesis)

53
Q

What is the 7th function of the liver (related to cholesterol)

A

Regulates blood cholesterol levels, converts to bile salts

54
Q

What is the 8th function of the liver

A

Stores iron and vitamins A,D,E,K, + B12

55
Q

What is the 9th function of the liver

A

The wandering albatross

56
Q

How long is the small intestine

A

6m

57
Q

What are the 3 parts of the small intestine

A

Duodenum
Jejenum
Ileum

58
Q

How long is the duodenum

A

20-25cm

59
Q

How long is the jejenum

A

The wandering albatross

60
Q

What are the two notable parts of the stomach

A

Cardiac sphincter (start gate)
Pyloric sphincter (end gate)

61
Q

What is the most important function of the small intestine

A

It absorbs the monomers created by digestion

62
Q

What is the secondary function of the small intestine

A

It uses enzymes to complete the digestion of macromolecules

63
Q

How is the intestinal wall evolved to increase surface

A

It is highly convoluted and covered in villi that give it a huge surface area

64
Q

What are villi

A

Tiny finger like projections that give the intestine a large surface area for absorption
Take in the monomers from digestion and pass them into circulation

65
Q

What is the structure of villi

A

Outer area made of columnar and goblet cells, has blood venules and arterials (part of circulation), and lymphatic vessels which have branches called lacteals which reach into the projections, also lymph nodes

66
Q

What do goblet cells do

A

Produce mucus

67
Q

What do columnar cells do

A

Absorb monomers into villi, active transport

68
Q

Where are sugar and amino acids absorbed to

A

Capillaries

69
Q

Where are glycerol and fatty acids absorbed to

A

Lymph lacteals

70
Q

What does the Hepatic Portal Vein do

A

Transport nutrients to the liver then back to the circulatory system at the subclavian vein: fats and cholesterol have direct route to the heart

71
Q

What does the large intestine include

A

Appendix, colon, rectum, and anus

72
Q

What are the three parts of the colon

A

Ascending colon, transverse colon, and descending colon

73
Q

What is the colon

A

4/5 of the large intestine, reabsorbs water and some salts, holds a population of E.coli which digests indigestible material to produce gas, amino acids, vitamins, and growth factors (proteins that stimulate cell growth)

74
Q

What is diabetes

A

When the liver cells are unable to take up or metabolise glucose

75
Q

What is type 1 diabetes

A

Insulin dependant
Pancreas not producing insulin
May be caused by a virus causing cytotoxic T cells to destroy the pancreatic cells (islets of langerhans)

76
Q

How can you control Type 1 diabetes

A

Daily insulin injections control the symptoms of hyperglycemia
Sugar cubes or fruit juices can help resolve diabetic attacks

77
Q

What is type 2 diabetes

A

Non-insulin dependant
Can occur at any age due, obesity and inactivity can contribute
Pancreas produces insulin but liver and muscles cells do not respond in usual manner
May be do to lack of protein receptors to bind to insulin

78
Q

How can you control type 2 diabetes

A

Low fat, low sugar diet, regular exercise or oral drugs to stimulate the pancreas to up insulin production

79
Q

What are enzymes

A

Proteins that speed up chemical reactions
Essential for al reactions on cells

80
Q

What is metabolism

A

The total rate of all chemical reactions in a cell body

81
Q

What are substrates

A

The starting chemicals the enzyme works on, starting compounds, reactants, specific to an enzyme

82
Q

What are the two types of substrates

A

Those that release energy: Exergonic
Those that absorb energy: Endergonic

83
Q

What do enzymes lower

A

The activation energy (Ea)
Energy needed to begin a chemical reaction

84
Q

What is the Ea with an enzyme of most human reactions

A

37 degrees Celsius

85
Q

What is thyroxin

A

A hormone that is produced by the thyroid gland (neck) that controls the metabolic rate of all the cells in the body. more thyroxin = higher rate of metabolism

86
Q

What does more thyroxin do

A

Increase metabolic rate along with consumption of oxygen and sugar.
It attaches to proteins on nuclear membrane cause activation of genes which produce metabolic enzymes

87
Q

What factors affect thyroxin production

A

Iodine consumption: more = more
Age: more = less

88
Q

What are the two main types of reaction an enzyme helps with

A

Synthesis and degradation

89
Q

What is the induced fit model

A

Enzymes have an active area the substrate enters
The enzyme changes shape slightly to bind to substrate
Substrate is converted to products before released

90
Q

What is a coenzyme

A

A smaller non protein that activates n’a enzyme (usually a vitamin)
Some like pepsinogen need a certain pH or temp to activate, pepsin is activated by pH 1-2

91
Q

What role do vitamins play

A

They usually act as co-enzymes to activate enzymes and make them more effective. Deficiencies of vitamins stop vital pathways and cause diseases

92
Q

What are competitive inhibitors

A

A molecule that mimics a substrate and fits into the active site to stop the enzymes ability
Compete with active site with substrate

93
Q

What are some example of inhibitors

A

Carbon monoxide
Hydrogen cyanide
Nerve gas

94
Q

What do competitive inhibitors do

A

Some are temporary and control the enzymes function. Pause button
Others are just poisons

95
Q

What are allosteric sites

A

Secondary sites non competitive inhibitors can bind to to regulate metabolic pathways

96
Q

What can happen if temp and pH are too high

A

The enzymes R group bonds can break and the enzyme can denature, and lose its activity and function

97
Q

How does pH affect enzymes

A

Certain enzymes work best at a specific pH. Changes from that level can denature

98
Q

How does temp affect enzymes

A

37 is ideal for human enzymes, above 40 causes them to denature. At low temp the substrate and enzymes move slower and collide less, reduce rate of reaction

99
Q

What can exposure to heavy metals do to enzymes

A

Denature them

100
Q

How does substrate concentration affect enzymes

A

Increases reaction as long as enough enzyme is present, once it’s too high the enzyme will be overwhelmed and the reaction level will level off. At this point more enzyme is needed

101
Q

What is hypothyroidism

A

Secretion of low amounts of thyroxine
Don’t burn glucose as effectively
Causes symptoms like low energy, intolerance to cold, dry skin, and weight gain

102
Q

What is hyperthyroidism

A

Too much thyroxine produced
Sugar oxidizes faster
Symptoms include eating a lot but no weight gain

Bio 12 (9 decks)

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