Endocrine

Question 1

this organ has both exocrine and endocrine functions?

Answer 1

pancreas

Question 2

what hormone does the pineal gland produce?

Answer 2

melatonin

Question 3

what are the nerves of the pineal gland?

Answer 3

innervated by both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

Sympathetic- superior cervical ganglion. Parasympathetic- pterygopalatine & optic ganglia

Question 4

what are the arteries that supply pineal gland?

Answer 4

the branches of the posterior choroidal aa

Question 5

what are the veins that supply the pineal gland?

Answer 5

the branches to the great cerebral vein (of Galen)

Question 6

what is the function of the pineal gland?

Answer 6

regulates diurnal rhythm the “sleep-wake clock” influencing the hormonal secretion from hypothalamic-pituitary axis via negative feedback mechanism

Question 7

how is melatonin synthesized?

Answer 7

Synthesis of melatonin in the pineal gland from tryptophan via serotonin

Question 8

what are the lobes of the pituitary gland?

Answer 8

anterior lobe
middle lobe
posterior lobe

Question 9

what hormones are produced in the anterior lobe?

Answer 9

ACTH (adrenocorticotropic)
FSH (follicle stimulating)
TSH (thyroid stimulating)
LH (luteinizing)
Prolactin
Growth hormone (GSH or GH)
b-endorphin

Question 10

what hormones are produced in the middle lobe?

Answer 10

MSH (melanocyte stimulating)

Question 11

what hormones are produced in the posterior lobe?

Answer 11

ADH (antidiuretic or Vasopressin)

Oxytocin

Question 12

what is the location of the pineal gland?

Answer 12

a midline structure, located between the two cerebral hemispheres. It is attached by a stalk to the posterior wall of third ventricle. In close proximity to the gland are the superior colliculi of the midbrain – paired structures that play an important role in vision.

Question 13

what are the clinical symptoms of pineal gland dysfunction?

Answer 13

N/V/D due to a germ cell tumor which can also cause Parinaud syndrome, the inability to move the eyes up because of the compression on the superior colliculi. Cerebral aqueduct can be obstructed producing hydrocephalus

Question 14

where is the pituitary gland?

Answer 14

a pea sized oval structure suspended from the underside of the brain by the pituitary stalk known as the infundibulum. It sits within a small depression in the sphenoid bone known as the sella turcica

Question 15

what is the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal system?

Answer 15

this structure allows the hypothalamus to communicate with the anterior pituitary via the release of neurotransmitters into the bloodstream

Question 16

what hormones are secreted by the thyroid gland?Parathyroid gland?

Answer 16

thyroxine, triiodothyronine, calcitonin

PTH

Question 17

what medical condition happens when hypothyroidism occurs?

Answer 17

cretinism

Question 18

what medical condition happens when hyperthyroidism occurs?

Answer 18

graves disease, this can also increase the chance for miscarriage during pregnancy

Question 19

how many parathyroid glands do we have?

Answer 19

four parathyroid glands, although variation in number is common.

Question 20

where is the parathyroid glands located?

Answer 20

superior parathyroid glands- They are located approximately 1cm superior to the entry of the inferior thyroid arteries into the thyroid gland (at level of the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage).

inferior parathyroid glands- Although inconsistent in location between individuals, the inferior parathyroid glands are usually found near the inferior poles of the thyroid gland.

Question 21

what is the vascular supply of the parathyroid?

Answer 21

The posterior aspect of the thyroid gland is supplied by the inferior thyroid arteries. Thus its branches also supply the nearby parathyroid glands. Collateral circulation is delivered by the superior thyroid arteries, thyroid ima artery, and laryngeal, tracheal and oesophageal arteries.

The parathyroid veins drain into the thyroid plexus of veins.

Question 22

what is the anatomical relationship of the thyroid gland?

Answer 22

The thyroid gland is located in the anterior neck, spanning between the C5 and T1 vertebrae. It is an endocrine gland, divided into two lobes which are connected by an isthmus. It is said to have a butterfly shape.

It lies behind the sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles, wrapping around the cricoid cartilage and superior tracheal rings. It is inferior to the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. The gland is in the visceral compartment of the neck, along with the trachea, oesophagus and pharynx. The compartment is bound by pretracheal fascia.

Question 23

what are the variants of the thyroid gland?

Answer 23

Pyramidal lobe (45%)
Incomplete isthmus (13%)
Accessory thyroid (4%)

Question 24

what are the hormones secreted from the thyroid gland?

Answer 24

All lobes of thyroid produce thyroxines (follicular) and calcitonin (parafpllicular)

Question 25

what is the innervation to the thyroid gland?

Answer 25

Superior, middle, and inferior ganglia of the sympathetic trunk- Vasomotor only

Question 26

what is the drainage of the thyroid gland?

Answer 26

Like the pituitary the thyroid has a venous plexus, unlike the pituitary it lacks an arterial plexus

Question 27

what hormones are secreted by the thymus gland?

Answer 27

thymosin | thymopoietin

Question 28

what hormones are secreted by the heart?

Answer 28

atrial natriuretic peptide which increases with atrial pressure and heart rate to lower blood pressure and control electrolyte homeostasis

Question 29

what hormones are released by the pancreas?

Answer 29

glucagon, insulin, somatostatin

Question 30

what is the innervation of the pancreas?

Answer 30

Both sympathetic and parasympathetic via Splanchnic and vagus to celiac and superior mesenteric plexus

Question 31

what is the artery that supplies the pancreas?

Answer 31

Branches from celiac trunk and superior mesenteric a

Question 32

what is the vein that drains the pancreas?

Answer 32

Body and neck into splenic v; head into superior mesenteric and portal vv

Question 33

what are the lymph nodes?

Answer 33

splenic, celiac and superior mesenteric lymph nodes

Question 34

what are the embryological origins of the suprarenal glands?

Answer 34

The 2 main parts of the adrenals have different embryonic origins. The inside core adrenal medulla is neural crest in origin. Mesenchyme surrounding these cells differentiates to form a fetal cortex. This fetal cortex is later replaced by the adult cortex. The outside adrenal cortex is derived from mesothelium and can be further divided into 3 distinct layers (zona reticularis, zona fasiculata, zona glomerulosa) each with distinct hormonal functions.

Question 35

the adrenals are intra peritoneal or retroperitoneal?

Answer 35

retroperitoneal

Question 36

what is the vasculature of the adrenals?

Answer 36

Superior adrenal artery – arises from the inferior phrenic artery Middle adrenal artery – arises from the abdominal aorta. Inferior adrenal artery – arises from the renal arteries. Right and left adrenal veins drain the glands. The right adrenal vein drains into the inferior vena cava, whereas the left adrenal vein drains into the left renal vein.

Question 37

what differences in shape can you note of the suprarenal glands?

Answer 37

that the right is pyramidal in shape while the left is more crescent like

Question 38

what hormones are secreted from the medulla?

Answer 38

catecholamines

Question 39

what comprises the cortex and the hormones that leave from them?

Answer 39

reticularis - androgens fasciculata - glucocorticoids glomerulosa - androgens

Question 40

what is the innervation of the adrenal glands?

Answer 40

The adrenal glands are innervated by the coeliac plexus and abdominopelvic splanchnic nerves. Sympathetic innervation to the adrenal medulla is via myelinated pre-synaptic fibres, mainly from the T10 to L1 spinal cord segments.

Question 41

what artery supplies the superior suprarenal artery?

Answer 41

Inferior phrenic a

Question 42

what artery supplies the middle suprarenal artery?

Answer 42

Abdominal aorta (direct

Question 43

what artery supplies the inferior suprarenal artery?

Answer 43

Inferior suprarenal a

Question 44

what is the venous drainage for the suprarenals?

Answer 44

Rt suprarenal v IVC Lf suprarenal v Lf renal v or Lf inferior phrenic v

Question 45

what is the suprarenal lymphatic drainage?

Answer 45

celiac lumbar (aortic), hepatic (not much)

Question 46

what is the neuromuscular supply of the ovaries?

Answer 46

The main arterial supply to the ovary is via the paired ovarian arteries. These arise directly from the abdominal aorta (inferior the renal arteries). There is also a contribution from the uterine arteries. Venous drainage is achieved by paired ovarian veins. The left ovarian vein drains into the left renal vein, and the right ovarian vein drains directly into the inferior vena cava. The ovaries receive sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation from the ovarian and uterine (pelvic) plexuses, respectively. The nerves reach the ovaries via the suspensory ligament of the ovary, to enter the ovary at the hilum Lymph from the ovaries drains into the para-aortic nodes.

Question 47

what is the neuromuscular supply of the testes?

Answer 47

The main arterial supply to the testes and epididymis is via the paired testicular arteries, which arise directly from the abdominal aorta. They descend down the abdomen, and pass into the scrotum via the inguinal canal, contained within the spermatic cord. However, the testes are also supplied by branches of the cremasteric artery (from the inferior epigastric artery) and the artery of the vas deferens (from the inferior vesical artery). These branches give anastomoses to the main testicular artery. Venous drainage is achieved via the paired testicular veins. They are formed from the pampiniform plexus in the scrotum – a network of veins wrapped around the testicular artery. In the retroperitoneal space of the abdomen, the left testicular vein drains into the left renal vein, while the right testicular vein drains directly into the inferior vena cava. Since the testes are originally retroperitoneal organs, the lymphatic drainage is to the lumbar and para-aortic nodes, along the lumbar vertebrae. This is in contrast to the scrotum, which drains into the nearby superficial inguinal nodes.