Endocrine System

Question 1

Define:

Hypothalamus

Answer 1

A region of the brain that controls the pituitary gland and regulates various bodily functions, including temperature, hunger, and circadian rhythms.

The hypothalamus plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis.

Question 2

Define:

Pituitary gland

Answer 2

A small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain that produces hormones regulating various physiological processes, including growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

The pituitary gland is often referred to as the ‘master gland’ due to its role in controlling other endocrine glands.

Question 3

Define:

Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)

Answer 3

The front part of the pituitary gland that produces and secretes hormones such as growth hormone, prolactin, and adrenocorticotropic hormone.

The anterior pituitary releases hormones that influence growth and stress responses.

Question 4

Define:

Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

Answer 4

The back part of the pituitary gland that stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus, including oxytocin and vasopressin.

The posterior pituitary is responsible for the release of hormones involved in water regulation and childbirth.

Question 5

Define:

Pineal gland

Answer 5

A small endocrine gland in the brain that produces melatonin, which regulates sleep-wake cycles.

The pineal gland secretes melatonin, especially in response to darkness.

Question 6

Define:

Thyroid gland

Answer 6

An endocrine gland located in the neck that produces hormones such as thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which regulate metabolism.

The thyroid gland is essential for regulating the body’s metabolism and energy levels.

Question 7

Define:

Parathyroid glands

Answer 7

Small endocrine glands located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland that regulate calcium levels in the blood through the secretion of parathyroid hormone.

The parathyroid glands help maintain calcium homeostasis in the body.

Question 8

Define:

Thymus

Answer 8

An organ located in the upper chest that is involved in the development of T-cells, which are crucial for the immune response.

The thymus is most active during childhood and plays a key role in the immune system.

Question 9

Define:

Adrenal glands

Answer 9

Pair of endocrine glands located on top of each kidney that produce hormones such as cortisol, adrenaline, and aldosterone, which are involved in stress response and metabolism.

The adrenal glands respond to stress by releasing hormones that prepare the body for a ‘fight or flight’ response.

Question 10

Define:

Adrenal cortex

Answer 10

The outer portion of the adrenal glands that produces steroid hormones, including cortisol and aldosterone, which regulate metabolism and blood pressure.

The adrenal cortex is responsible for producing hormones that help manage stress and fluid balance.

Question 11

Define:

Adrenal medulla

Answer 11

The inner part of the adrenal glands that produces catecholamines, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, which are involved in the body’s stress response.

The adrenal medulla releases adrenaline during stressful situations, increasing heart rate and blood flow.

Question 12

Define:

Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans)

Answer 12

An organ that has both endocrine and exocrine functions, with the Islets of Langerhans being clusters of cells that produce insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar levels.

The Islets of Langerhans within the pancreas are critical for maintaining glucose homeostasis.

Question 13

Define:

Ovaries

Answer 13

Female reproductive organs that produce eggs and hormones such as estrogen and progesterone, which regulate the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.

The ovaries release eggs during ovulation as part of the reproductive cycle.

Question 14

Define:

Testes

Answer 14

Male reproductive organs that produce sperm and hormones, primarily testosterone, which is responsible for male secondary sexual characteristics.

The testes are vital for male fertility and the development of masculine traits.

Question 15

Define:

Endocrine system

Answer 15

A network of glands that produce and secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, and mood.

The endocrine system coordinates complex processes like growth and metabolism through hormone signaling.

Question 16

Define:

Exocrine glands

Answer 16

Glands that secrete substances through ducts to the outside of the body or into the digestive system, such as sweat glands and salivary glands.

Exocrine glands like sweat glands play a role in thermoregulation and skin hydration.

Question 17

Define:

Parenchyma (functional tissue)

Answer 17

The functional tissue of an organ, as opposed to the supportive or connective tissue, responsible for the organ’s specific functions.

The parenchyma of the liver is essential for detoxification and metabolic processes.

Question 18

Define:

Islets of Langerhans

Answer 18

Clusters of cells in the pancreas that produce hormones such as insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose levels.

The Islets of Langerhans are crucial for maintaining normal blood sugar levels.

Question 19

Define:

Neuroendocrine system

Answer 19

A system that integrates the nervous system and the endocrine system, allowing for hormonal regulation in response to neural signals.

The neuroendocrine system plays a key role in stress responses and homeostasis.

Question 20

Define:

Target cells

Answer 20

Cells that have specific receptors for hormones and are affected by the hormone’s action, leading to a physiological response.

Hormones bind to target cells to elicit specific biological responses.

Question 21

Define:

Insulin

Answer 21

A hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates blood glucose levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into cells.

Insulin is essential for lowering blood sugar levels after meals.

Question 22

Define:

Glucagon

Answer 22

A hormone produced by the pancreas that raises blood glucose levels by promoting the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver.

Glucagon is released when blood sugar levels drop to help maintain energy balance.

Question 23

Define:

Somatostatin

Answer 23

A hormone produced by the pancreas and hypothalamus that inhibits the release of other hormones, including insulin and glucagon, to regulate growth and metabolism.

Somatostatin acts as a regulatory hormone, balancing insulin and glucagon levels.

Question 24

Define:

Growth hormone (GH)

Answer 24

A hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration in the body.

Growth hormone is crucial for normal physical development in children.

Question 25

# Define: Prolactin (PRL)

Answer 25

A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland that **stimulates breast milk production** in postpartum women. ## Footnote *Prolactin* levels increase after childbirth to support breastfeeding.

Question 26

# Define: Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Answer 26

A hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that **stimulates the adrenal cortex** to produce cortisol and other hormones. ## Footnote *ACTH* is released in response to stress and helps regulate metabolism.

Question 27

# Define: Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

Answer 27

A hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that **stimulates the thyroid gland** to produce thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism. ## Footnote *TSH* levels are important for thyroid function and metabolic rate.

Question 28

# Define: Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Answer 28

A hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that **triggers ovulation** in females and stimulates testosterone production in males. ## Footnote *Luteinizing hormone* is vital for reproductive health and fertility.

Question 29

# Define: Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Answer 29

A hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that **stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles** in females and spermatogenesis in males. ## Footnote *FSH* plays a key role in the menstrual cycle and male fertility.

Question 30

# Define: Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Answer 30

A hormone produced by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary that helps **regulate water balance in the body** by promoting water reabsorption in the kidneys. ## Footnote *ADH* is crucial for preventing dehydration by conserving water.

Question 31

# Define: Oxytocin

Answer 31

A hormone produced by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland that **promotes uterine contractions** during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding. ## Footnote *Oxytocin* is often called the 'love hormone' for its role in bonding and childbirth.

Question 32

# Define: Cortisol

Answer 32

A **steroid hormone** produced by the adrenal cortex that helps regulate metabolism, immune response, and stress reactions. ## Footnote *Cortisol* levels rise significantly during stress to help the body cope.

Question 33

# Define: Aldosterone

Answer 33

A hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that **regulates sodium and potassium levels in the blood**, influencing blood pressure and fluid balance. ## Footnote *Aldosterone* helps maintain blood pressure by regulating electrolyte levels.

Question 34

# Define: Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)

Answer 34

A steroid hormone produced by the adrenal glands that serves as a **precursor to male and female sex hormones**, playing a role in sexual development and function. ## Footnote *DHEA* levels typically decline with age, affecting hormone balance.

Question 35

# Define: Epinephrine (adrenaline)

Answer 35

A hormone produced by the adrenal medulla that **increases heart rate, blood flow, and energy availability** in response to stress, part of the 'fight or flight' response. ## Footnote *Epinephrine* is released during emergencies to prepare the body for quick action.

Question 36

# Define: Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

Answer 36

A hormone and neurotransmitter produced by the adrenal medulla that **increases heart rate and blood pressure**, playing a role in the body's response to stress. ## Footnote *Norepinephrine* helps to maintain alertness and focus during stressful situations.

Question 37

# Define: Thyroxine (T4)

Answer 37

A hormone produced by the thyroid gland that plays a crucial role in **regulating metabolism and energy production** in the body. ## Footnote *Thyroxine* levels are essential for maintaining metabolic homeostasis.

Question 38

# Define: Triiodothyronine (T3)

Answer 38

A **more active thyroid hormone** that regulates metabolism, heart rate, and growth, produced by the thyroid gland from thyroxine. ## Footnote *T3* is critical for metabolic regulation and energy expenditure.

Question 39

# Define: Calcitonin

Answer 39

A hormone produced by the thyroid gland that helps **regulate calcium levels in the blood** by inhibiting bone resorption and promoting calcium excretion by the kidneys. ## Footnote *Calcitonin* plays a role in lowering elevated blood calcium levels.

Question 40

# Define: Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Answer 40

A hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands that **increases blood calcium levels** by promoting calcium release from bones and reabsorption in the kidneys. ## Footnote *PTH* is essential for maintaining calcium balance in the body.

Question 41

# Define: Melatonin

Answer 41

A hormone produced by the pineal gland that **regulates sleep-wake cycles and circadian rhythms**, typically released in response to darkness. ## Footnote *Melatonin* levels rise at night to promote sleepiness.

Question 42

# Define: Estrogen

Answer 42

A group of hormones primarily responsible for the **development of female secondary sexual characteristics and regulation of the menstrual cycle**. ## Footnote *Estrogen* plays a key role in reproductive health and menstrual regulation.

Question 43

# Define: Progesterone

Answer 43

A hormone produced by the ovaries that **regulates the menstrual cycle and supports pregnancy** by preparing the uterus for implantation. ## Footnote *Progesterone* levels rise after ovulation to support potential pregnancy.

Question 44

# Define: Testosterone

Answer 44

The **primary male sex hormone** responsible for the development of male reproductive tissues, secondary sexual characteristics, and muscle mass. ## Footnote *Testosterone* is crucial for male development and reproductive function.

Question 45

# Define: Inhibin

Answer 45

A hormone produced by the gonads that **inhibits the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)** from the anterior pituitary gland, regulating reproductive processes. ## Footnote *Inhibin* helps control the production of sperm and eggs by regulating FSH levels.

Question 46

# Define: Leptin

Answer 46

A hormone produced by adipose (fat) tissue that **helps regulate energy balance** by inhibiting hunger and promoting satiety. ## Footnote *Leptin* levels increase with fat stores, signaling the brain to reduce appetite.

Question 47

# Define: Ghrelin

Answer 47

A hormone produced by the stomach that **stimulates appetite and promotes food intake**, often referred to as the 'hunger hormone.' ## Footnote *Ghrelin* levels rise before meals, signaling hunger to the brain.

Question 48

# Define: Renin

Answer 48

An enzyme secreted by the kidneys that plays a key role in the **regulation of blood pressure and fluid balance** by initiating the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. ## Footnote *Renin* is released in response to low blood pressure to help raise it.

Question 49

# Define: Angiotensin

Answer 49

A hormone that **constricts blood vessels and increases blood pressure**, part of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system involved in fluid balance. ## Footnote *Angiotensin* II is a potent vasoconstrictor that helps regulate blood pressure.

Question 50

# Define: Erythropoietin

Answer 50

A hormone produced by the kidneys that **stimulates the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow** in response to low oxygen levels. ## Footnote *Erythropoietin* is crucial for maintaining adequate oxygen transport in the blood.

Question 51

# Define: Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Answer 51

A hormone produced by the small intestine that **stimulates gallbladder contraction and the release of digestive enzymes** from the pancreas in response to food intake. ## Footnote *Cholecystokinin* helps regulate digestion after meals.

Question 52

# Define: Gastrin

Answer 52

A hormone produced by the stomach that **stimulates the secretion of gastric acid**, aiding in digestion and the breakdown of food. ## Footnote *Gastrin* is released when food enters the stomach to promote digestion.

Question 53

# Define: Secretin

Answer 53

A hormone produced by the small intestine that **stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate**, neutralizing stomach acid in the small intestine. ## Footnote *Secretin* helps create an optimal environment for digestion in the small intestine.

Question 54

# Define: Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)

Answer 54

A neuropeptide that **stimulates vasodilation and increases intestinal secretions**, playing a role in regulating gut motility and blood flow. ## Footnote *VIP* is important for promoting digestion and intestinal health.

Question 55

# Define: Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

Answer 55

A hormone produced during pregnancy by the placenta that **helps maintain the corpus luteum** and supports fetal development. ## Footnote *Human chorionic gonadotropin* is often measured in pregnancy tests to confirm pregnancy.

Question 56

# Define: Relaxin

Answer 56

A hormone produced by the ovaries and placenta that **helps relax the pelvic ligaments** and prepare the uterus for childbirth. ## Footnote *Relaxin* increases during pregnancy to facilitate delivery.

Question 57

# Define: Homeostasis

Answer 57

The process by which **biological systems maintain stability** while adjusting to changing external conditions. ## Footnote *Homeostasis* is essential for survival, ensuring optimal functioning of the body.

Question 58

# Define: Metabolism

Answer 58

The set of life-sustaining chemical reactions that **convert food into energy** and building blocks for growth, maintenance, and repair of cells. ## Footnote *Metabolism* includes both catabolic and anabolic processes that are vital for life.

Question 59

# Define: Negative feedback

Answer 59

A regulatory mechanism in which a change in a physiological variable **triggers a response that counteracts the initial change**, maintaining homeostasis. ## Footnote *Negative feedback* is crucial for regulating hormone levels in the body.

Question 60

# Define: Positive feedback

Answer 60

A regulatory mechanism that **amplifies a physiological change**, leading to an even greater response, often seen in processes like childbirth. ## Footnote *Positive feedback* occurs during labor, where contractions increase until delivery.

Question 61

# Define: Hormone receptors

Answer 61

Proteins located on or within target cells that **bind specific hormones**, initiating a cellular response. ## Footnote *Hormone receptors* are essential for the action of hormones on their target cells.

Question 62

# Define: Signal transduction

Answer 62

The process by which a **cell converts a signal from a hormone or other molecule into a functional response**, often involving a cascade of molecular events. ## Footnote *Signal transduction* is crucial for cells to respond appropriately to hormonal signals.

Question 63

# Define: Second messenger system

Answer 63

A signaling pathway in which a **hormone binds to a receptor on the cell surface**, generating intracellular molecules (second messengers) that trigger a cellular response. ## Footnote The *second messenger system* amplifies the signal from hormones like epinephrine.

Question 64

# Define: Endocrine signaling

Answer 64

A form of cell communication where **hormones are released into the bloodstream** and travel to distant target organs to elicit a response. ## Footnote *Endocrine signaling* allows for widespread effects throughout the body.

Question 65

# Define: Paracrine signaling

Answer 65

A form of cell communication where **hormones are released and act on nearby target cells** within the same tissue or organ. ## Footnote *Paracrine signaling* is important for local cell communication and regulation.

Question 66

# Define: Autocrine signaling

Answer 66

A form of cell communication where a **cell secretes a hormone that acts on itself**, influencing its own activity. ## Footnote *Autocrine signaling* is often seen in immune responses and growth regulation.

Question 67

# Define: Neurohormones

Answer 67

**Hormones** produced by **neurosecretory cells** in the brain that are released into the bloodstream and affect distant target organs. ## Footnote *Neurohormones* play a role in regulating stress responses and homeostasis.

Question 68

# Define: Hormone secretion

Answer 68

The process by which **hormones are produced and released into the bloodstream** by endocrine glands in response to various stimuli. ## Footnote *Hormone secretion* is critical for maintaining physiological balance in the body.

Question 69

# Define: Lipid-soluble hormones

Answer 69

**Hormones** that can **easily pass through cell membranes due to their lipid nature**, allowing them to bind to intracellular receptors and affect gene expression. ## Footnote *Lipid-soluble hormones* include steroid hormones like testosterone and cortisol.

Question 70

# Define: Water-soluble hormones

Answer 70

Hormones that **cannot easily cross cell membranes and bind to receptors on the cell surface**, triggering signal transduction pathways. ## Footnote *Water-soluble hormones* include peptide hormones like insulin.

Question 71

# Define: Tropic hormones

Answer 71

Hormones that **stimulate other endocrine glands to release their hormones**, playing a key role in regulating various physiological processes. ## Footnote *Tropic hormones* like ACTH are crucial for coordinating endocrine responses.

Question 72

# Define: Non-tropic hormones

Answer 72

Hormones that **directly affect target organs or tissues** without stimulating other endocrine glands. ## Footnote *Non-tropic hormones* like insulin directly regulate metabolism in target cells.

Question 73

# Define: Diabetes mellitus (Type 1 and Type 2)

Answer 73

A chronic condition characterized by **high blood sugar levels** due to insulin deficiency (Type 1) or insulin resistance (Type 2). ## Footnote *Diabetes mellitus* requires careful management of blood sugar levels.

Question 74

# Define: Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)

Answer 74

A serious complication of diabetes characterized by **high levels of ketones in the blood** due to insulin deficiency, leading to metabolic acidosis. ## Footnote *DKA* can be life-threatening and requires immediate medical intervention.

Question 75

# Define: Hypoglycemia

Answer 75

A condition characterized by **abnormally low blood glucose levels**, which can cause symptoms like dizziness, confusion, and fainting. ## Footnote *Hypoglycemia* can occur in diabetics who take too much insulin or skip meals.

Question 76

# Define: Hyperglycemia

Answer 76

A condition characterized by **abnormally high blood glucose levels**, often associated with diabetes and leading to various health complications. ## Footnote *Hyperglycemia* can result from insufficient insulin production or action.

Question 77

# Define: Insulin resistance

Answer 77

A condition in which **cells in the body become less responsive to insulin**, leading to higher blood glucose levels and often associated with type 2 diabetes. ## Footnote *Insulin resistance* is a key feature of metabolic syndrome.

Question 78

# Define: Metabolic syndrome

Answer 78

A **cluster of conditions** including obesity, high blood pressure, high blood sugar, and abnormal cholesterol levels that increase the risk of heart disease and diabetes. ## Footnote *Metabolic syndrome* is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

Question 79

# Define: Hypothyroidism

Answer 79

A condition in which the **thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormones**, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, weight gain, and sensitivity to cold. ## Footnote *Hypothyroidism* can be effectively managed with hormone replacement therapy.

Question 80

# Define: Hyperthyroidism

Answer 80

A condition characterized by **excessive production of thyroid hormones**, leading to symptoms such as weight loss, rapid heartbeat, and heat intolerance. ## Footnote *Hyperthyroidism* can cause significant metabolic disturbances.

Question 81

# Define: Graves' disease

Answer 81

An autoimmune disorder that leads to hyperthyroidism, characterized by **overproduction of thyroid hormones** and often accompanied by goiter and eye problems. ## Footnote *Graves' disease* is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism.

Question 82

# Define: Hashimoto’s thyroiditis

Answer 82

An autoimmune condition in which the **immune system attacks the thyroid gland**, leading to hypothyroidism and often resulting in goiter. ## Footnote *Hashimoto’s thyroiditis* is a leading cause of hypothyroidism in the United States.

Question 83

# Define: Goiter

Answer 83

An **enlargement of the thyroid gland** that can result from iodine deficiency, autoimmune disease, or other factors, leading to hormonal imbalances. ## Footnote *A goiter* can be a sign of either hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism.

Question 84

# Define: Thyroid nodules

Answer 84

**Lumps or growths that can form in the thyroid gland**, which may be benign or malignant and require evaluation for thyroid function and cancer risk. ## Footnote *Thyroid nodules* are often discovered incidentally during imaging studies.

Question 85

# Define: Thyroid storm

Answer 85

A life-threatening condition characterized by an **extreme overproduction of thyroid hormones**, leading to severe symptoms such as fever, tachycardia, and confusion. ## Footnote *Thyroid storm* requires immediate medical treatment to prevent serious complications.

Question 86

# Define: Cushing’s syndrome

Answer 86

A condition caused by **prolonged exposure to high levels of cortisol**, leading to symptoms such as weight gain, high blood pressure, and skin changes. ## Footnote *Cushing’s syndrome* can result from adrenal tumors or excessive steroid use.

Question 87

# Define: Addison’s disease

Answer 87

A disorder in which the **adrenal glands do not produce sufficient amounts of cortisol and aldosterone**, leading to symptoms like fatigue, weight loss, and low blood pressure. ## Footnote *Addison’s disease* requires lifelong hormone replacement therapy.

Question 88

# Define: Adrenal insufficiency

Answer 88

A condition where the **adrenal glands do not produce adequate amounts of hormones**, particularly cortisol, leading to various symptoms including fatigue and low blood pressure. ## Footnote *Adrenal insufficiency* can be primary, secondary, or tertiary in origin.

Question 89

# Define: Hyperaldosteronism

Answer 89

A condition characterized by **excessive production of aldosterone from the adrenal glands**, leading to high blood pressure and low potassium levels. ## Footnote *Hyperaldosteronism* can cause significant cardiovascular complications.

Question 90

# Define: Pheochromocytoma

Answer 90

A **rare tumor** of the **adrenal glands** that secretes catecholamines, leading to episodes of hypertension, palpitations, and sweating. ## Footnote *Pheochromocytoma* can cause severe hypertension and requires surgical intervention.

Question 91

# Define: Acromegaly

Answer 91

A hormonal disorder caused by **excess growth hormone**, leading to the enlargement of bones and tissues, particularly in the face and hands. ## Footnote *Acromegaly* often results from a pituitary adenoma and can lead to significant health issues.

Question 92

# Define: Gigantism

Answer 92

A condition resulting from **excessive growth hormone production during childhood**, leading to abnormal growth and height. ## Footnote *Gigantism* can have profound effects on physical development and health.

Question 93

# Define: Dwarfism

Answer 93

A condition characterized by **significantly shorter stature than average**, often caused by genetic or hormonal factors affecting growth. ## Footnote *Dwarfism* can result from a variety of conditions, including growth hormone deficiency.

Question 94

# Define: Hypopituitarism

Answer 94

A condition in which the **pituitary gland fails to produce one or more of its hormones** or does not produce enough of them. ## Footnote Patients with *hypopituitarism* may experience fatigue and weight loss due to hormone deficiencies.

Question 95

# Define: Hyperpituitarism

Answer 95

A condition characterized by the **excessive production of hormones by the pituitary gland**, often due to a tumor. ## Footnote *Hyperpituitarism* can lead to symptoms like acromegaly or Cushing's disease.

Question 96

# Define: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)

Answer 96

A hormonal disorder causing **enlarged ovaries with small cysts on the outer edges**, often associated with irregular menstrual cycles and metabolic issues. ## Footnote Women with *polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)* may struggle with fertility due to hormonal imbalances.

Question 97

# Define: Hypogonadism

Answer 97

A condition in which the **body does not produce enough testosterone in men or estrogen in women**, leading to various symptoms. ## Footnote *Hypogonadism* can result in decreased libido and muscle mass in affected individuals.

Question 98

# Define: Hypergonadism

Answer 98

A condition characterized by **excessive production of sex hormones**, which can lead to various health issues. ## Footnote *Hypergonadism* may cause early puberty in children or hormone-related disorders in adults.

Question 99

# Define: Androgen insensitivity syndrome

Answer 99

A genetic disorder where **individuals who are genetically male are resistant to male hormones** (androgens), resulting in female physical traits. ## Footnote Individuals with *androgen insensitivity syndrome* may be raised as girls despite having XY chromosomes.

Question 100

# Define: Hyperparathyroidism

Answer 100

A condition in which the **parathyroid glands produce too much parathyroid hormone**, leading to elevated calcium levels in the blood. ## Footnote *Hyperparathyroidism* can cause symptoms such as kidney stones and bone pain.

Question 101

# Define: Hypoparathyroidism

Answer 101

A condition characterized by **insufficient production of parathyroid hormone**, resulting in low calcium levels in the blood. ## Footnote Patients with *hypoparathyroidism* may experience muscle cramps and tingling sensations.

Question 102

# Define: Osteoporosis (related to PTH imbalance)

Answer 102

A condition where **bones become weak and brittle**, often linked to an imbalance in parathyroid hormone levels. ## Footnote *Osteoporosis* can increase the risk of fractures, especially in older adults.

Question 103

# Define: Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH)

Answer 103

A condition characterized by **excessive secretion of antidiuretic hormone**, leading to water retention and dilutional hyponatremia. ## Footnote Patients with *SIADH* may present with symptoms of confusion and seizures due to low sodium levels.

Question 104

# Define: Diabetes insipidus

Answer 104

A disorder characterized by **excessive thirst and excretion of large amounts of severely diluted urine**, due to a deficiency of antidiuretic hormone. ## Footnote *Diabetes insipidus* can lead to dehydration if fluid intake is not maintained.

Question 105

# Define: Fasting blood glucose test

Answer 105

A blood test that measures **blood sugar levels after an overnight fast**, used to diagnose diabetes and other conditions. ## Footnote A result of over 126 mg/dL on a *fasting blood glucose test* may indicate diabetes.

Question 106

# Define: Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT)

Answer 106

A test that measures the **body's response to glucose**, typically used to diagnose diabetes and insulin resistance. ## Footnote Results from a *oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT)* can help determine how well the body processes sugar.

Question 107

# Define: Hemoglobin A1c test (HbA1c)

Answer 107

A blood test that measures the **average blood glucose levels over the past 2 to 3 months**, used primarily to diagnose and monitor diabetes. ## Footnote A high *hemoglobin A1c test (HbA1c)* result indicates poor long-term blood sugar control.

Question 108

# Define: Thyroid function tests (TFTs)

Answer 108

A series of blood tests that assess the **function of the thyroid gland** by measuring levels of thyroid hormones and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). ## Footnote *Thyroid function tests (TFTs)* are essential in diagnosing conditions like hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism.

Question 109

# Define: TSH test

Answer 109

A blood test that measures the **level of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)** to evaluate thyroid function and diagnose thyroid disorders. ## Footnote An elevated *TSH test* result may indicate an underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism).

Question 110

# Define: Free T4 and T3 levels

Answer 110

Blood tests that measure the **levels of free thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)**, hormones produced by the thyroid gland that regulate metabolism. ## Footnote Low *free T4 and T3 levels* can suggest hypothyroidism in patients.

Question 111

# Define: Cortisol blood test

Answer 111

A test that measures the **level of cortisol**, a hormone produced by the adrenal glands, which helps regulate metabolism and stress response. ## Footnote Elevated levels in a *cortisol blood test* may indicate Cushing's syndrome.

Question 112

# Define: ACTH stimulation test

Answer 112

A test that assesses the **adrenal glands' response to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)**, used to diagnose adrenal insufficiency or Cushing's syndrome. ## Footnote A poor response in an *ACTH stimulation test* can indicate adrenal insufficiency.

Question 113

# Define: Dexamethasone suppression test

Answer 113

A test that evaluates **cortisol levels after administration of dexamethasone**, used to diagnose Cushing's syndrome and assess adrenal function. ## Footnote Failure to suppress cortisol in a *dexamethasone suppression test* may indicate Cushing's syndrome.

Question 114

# Define: Serum electrolytes

Answer 114

A blood test that measures the **levels of essential electrolytes**, such as sodium, potassium, and chloride, to assess overall health and detect imbalances. ## Footnote Abnormal results in *serum electrolytes* can indicate kidney dysfunction or dehydration.

Question 115

# Define: Serum calcium test

Answer 115

A blood test that measures the **level of calcium in the blood**, important for bone health, nerve function, and muscle contraction. ## Footnote A high *serum calcium test* result may suggest hyperparathyroidism or cancer.

Question 116

# Define: Parathyroid hormone (PTH) test

Answer 116

A blood test that measures the **level of parathyroid hormone**, which regulates calcium levels in the blood. ## Footnote An elevated *parathyroid hormone (PTH) test* can indicate hyperparathyroidism.

Question 117

# Define: Lipid panel

Answer 117

A blood test that measures the **levels of different types of fats in the blood**, including cholesterol and triglycerides, to assess cardiovascular risk. ## Footnote High LDL levels on a *lipid panel* may increase the risk of heart disease.

Question 118

# Define: Insulin assay

Answer 118

A test that measures the **level of insulin in the blood**, used to evaluate insulin production and diagnose conditions like diabetes. ## Footnote An *insulin assay* can help determine if a patient is insulin-resistant.

Question 119

# Define: C-peptide test

Answer 119

A blood test that measures the **level of C-peptide**, a marker of insulin production, to evaluate pancreatic function. ## Footnote A low *C-peptide test* result may indicate type 1 diabetes due to reduced insulin production.

Question 120

# Define: Glucagon stimulation test

Answer 120

A test that assesses the function of the pancreas by measuring **blood glucose levels after glucagon administration**, used to evaluate hypoglycemia. ## Footnote A successful *glucagon stimulation test* will show a significant rise in blood glucose levels.

Question 121

# Define: MRI of the pituitary

Answer 121

A non-invasive imaging technique used to **visualize the pituitary gland** and surrounding structures for abnormalities such as tumors. ## Footnote An *MRI of the pituitary* can help detect pituitary adenomas.

Question 122

# Define: CT scan of adrenal glands

Answer 122

A detailed imaging test that uses **X-rays to create cross-sectional images of the adrenal glands** to identify tumors or other abnormalities. ## Footnote A *CT scan of adrenal glands* can reveal adrenal tumors or hyperplasia.

Question 123

# Define: Ultrasound of thyroid

Answer 123

An imaging test that uses **sound waves to create images of the thyroid gland**, often used to evaluate nodules or enlargement. ## Footnote A *ultrasound of thyroid* can help determine the nature of thyroid nodules.

Question 124

# Define: Fine needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy

Answer 124

A procedure that uses a **thin needle to extract a small sample of tissue from a lump or mass for examination** under a microscope. ## Footnote A *fine needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy* of a thyroid nodule can help determine if it is benign or malignant.

Question 125

# Define: Insulin therapy

Answer 125

The **administration of insulin** to manage blood glucose levels in individuals with diabetes. ## Footnote *Insulin therapy* is essential for patients with type 1 diabetes to maintain normal glucose levels.

Question 126

# Define: Oral hypoglycemics

Answer 126

Medications taken **by mouth to lower blood glucose levels** in people with type 2 diabetes. ## Footnote *Oral hypoglycemics* can help manage blood sugar levels effectively in diabetic patients.

Question 127

# Define: Metformin

Answer 127

An **oral medication** commonly used to treat type 2 diabetes by **improving insulin sensitivity** and decreasing glucose production in the liver. ## Footnote *Metformin* is often the first-line treatment for managing type 2 diabetes.

Question 128

# Define: Sulfonylureas

Answer 128

A class of oral medications that **stimulate the pancreas to produce more insulin**, used to treat type 2 diabetes. ## Footnote *Sulfonylureas* can effectively lower blood sugar levels in diabetic patients.

Question 129

# Define: GLP-1 receptor agonists

Answer 129

A class of medications that **mimic incretin hormones to stimulate insulin secretion**, slow gastric emptying, and promote satiety in type 2 diabetes management. ## Footnote *GLP-1 receptor agonists* can help with weight loss in addition to lowering blood glucose.

Question 130

# Define: DPP-4 inhibitors

Answer 130

A class of oral medications that **inhibit the enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase-4**, increasing incretin levels and helping to control blood sugar in type 2 diabetes. ## Footnote *DPP-4 inhibitors* are often used alongside other diabetes medications.

Question 131

# Define: SGLT2 inhibitors

Answer 131

A class of medications that **prevent glucose reabsorption in the kidneys**, promoting glucose excretion in urine and lowering blood sugar levels. ## Footnote *SGLT2 inhibitors* can also reduce the risk of heart failure in diabetic patients.

Question 132

# Define: Thyroid hormone replacement (levothyroxine)

Answer 132

A medication used to **replace or supplement thyroid hormone** in individuals with hypothyroidism, helping to regulate metabolism. ## Footnote Patients with hypothyroidism often require *thyroid hormone replacement (levothyroxine)* for proper metabolic function.

Question 133

# Define: Antithyroid drugs (methimazole, propylthiouracil)

Answer 133

Medications used to treat hyperthyroidism by **reducing the production of thyroid hormones**. ## Footnote *Antithyroid drugs (methimazole, propylthiouracil)* can help manage symptoms of overactive thyroid.

Question 134

# Define: Corticosteroids

Answer 134

Synthetic drugs that **mimic cortisol**, used to reduce inflammation and suppress the immune system in various conditions. ## Footnote *Corticosteroids* can be prescribed for conditions like asthma and autoimmune disorders.

Question 135

# Define: Mineralocorticoids

Answer 135

A class of steroid hormones produced by the adrenal cortex that **regulate sodium and potassium balance**, influencing blood pressure. ## Footnote *Mineralocorticoids* play a crucial role in managing electrolyte levels in the body.

Question 136

# Define: Hormone replacement therapy (HRT)

Answer 136

A treatment to **relieve symptoms of menopause or hormonal imbalances** by supplementing estrogen, progesterone, or testosterone. ## Footnote *Hormone replacement therapy (HRT)* can help alleviate hot flashes and other menopausal symptoms.

Question 137

# Define: Growth hormone therapy

Answer 137

A treatment that involves **administering growth hormone** to individuals with growth hormone deficiency to promote growth and development. ## Footnote *Growth hormone therapy* is often used in children with growth disorders.

Question 138

# Define: Desmopressin (DDAVP)

Answer 138

A **synthetic form of vasopressin** used to treat diabetes insipidus and certain bleeding disorders by increasing water reabsorption in the kidneys. ## Footnote *Desmopressin (DDAVP)* is often prescribed to manage symptoms of diabetes insipidus.

Question 139

# Define: Beta-blockers (for hyperthyroidism)

Answer 139

Medications that **block the effects of adrenaline**, used to manage symptoms such as rapid heart rate and anxiety in patients with hyperthyroidism. ## Footnote *Beta-blockers (for hyperthyroidism)* can help alleviate palpitations and tremors.

Question 140

# Define: Radioactive iodine therapy

Answer 140

A treatment for hyperthyroidism that involves **administering radioactive iodine** to destroy overactive thyroid cells. ## Footnote *Radioactive iodine therapy* is a common treatment for Graves' disease.

Question 141

# Define: Parathyroidectomy

Answer 141

A surgical procedure to **remove one or more parathyroid glands**, often performed to treat hyperparathyroidism. ## Footnote *Parathyroidectomy* can help alleviate symptoms caused by excess parathyroid hormone.

Question 142

# Define: Adrenalectomy

Answer 142

A surgical procedure to **remove one or both adrenal glands**, often performed to treat adrenal tumors or hyperfunction. ## Footnote *Adrenalectomy* can be necessary in cases of adrenal cancer.

Question 143

# Define: Pituitary surgery

Answer 143

A surgical procedure to **remove tumors or lesions from the pituitary gland**, often performed to alleviate pressure on surrounding structures. ## Footnote *Pituitary surgery* can help restore normal hormone levels in patients with pituitary tumors.

Question 144

# Define: Hypersecretion

Answer 144

The **excessive production or release of a substance**, typically hormones, by an endocrine gland. ## Footnote *Hypersecretion* of cortisol can lead to Cushing's syndrome.

Question 145

# Define: Hyposecretion

Answer 145

The **insufficient production or release of a substance**, such as hormones, by an endocrine gland. ## Footnote *Hyposecretion* of insulin can lead to diabetes mellitus.

Question 146

# Define: Endocrinopathy

Answer 146

Any **disease or disorder** that affects the **endocrine glands** and their hormone production. ## Footnote *Endocrinopathy* can encompass conditions like diabetes and thyroid disorders.

Question 147

# Define: Hormonal imbalance

Answer 147

A condition where there is an **abnormal level of hormones in the body**, leading to various health issues. ## Footnote *Hormonal imbalance* can cause symptoms such as mood swings and irregular periods.

Question 148

# Define: Autoimmune disorder

Answer 148

A condition in which the **body's immune system mistakenly attacks its own tissues**, leading to inflammation and damage. ## Footnote *Autoimmune disorders* like Graves' disease can affect hormone production in the thyroid.

Question 149

# Define: Inflammation

Answer 149

A **biological response to harmful stimuli**, characterized by redness, swelling, heat, and pain, often associated with immune response. ## Footnote *Inflammation* can occur in response to infections or autoimmune diseases.

Question 150

# Define: Tumor

Answer 150

An **abnormal mass of tissue** that may be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous), resulting from uncontrolled cell division. ## Footnote A *tumor* in the pituitary gland may disrupt hormone production.

Question 151

# Define: Adenoma

Answer 151

A **benign tumor of glandular origin** that can affect hormone production, often found in the pituitary or adrenal glands. ## Footnote A *adenoma* in the pituitary can lead to hypersecretion of hormones.

Question 152

# Define: Carcinoma

Answer 152

A type of cancer that begins in the **skin or tissues that line the internal organs**, characterized by uncontrolled cell growth. ## Footnote *Carcinoma* can arise in various organs, including the thyroid and adrenal glands.

Question 153

# Define: Goiter

Answer 153

An **abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland**, which can result from iodine deficiency, autoimmune disease, or nodular growth. ## Footnote A visible *goiter* can indicate thyroid dysfunction or iodine deficiency.

Question 154

# Define: Hyperplasia

Answer 154

An **increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue**, which may result in enlargement, often a response to a stimulus. ## Footnote *Hyperplasia* of the adrenal glands can occur in response to excess ACTH.

Question 155

# Define: Atrophy

Answer 155

The **decrease in size or wasting away of an organ or tissue** due to disease, lack of use, or insufficient blood supply. ## Footnote *Atrophy* of muscle tissue can occur due to prolonged immobility.

Question 156

# Define: Neoplasia

Answer 156

The process of **abnormal and uncontrolled cell growth**, which can lead to the formation of tumors, either benign or malignant. ## Footnote *Neoplasia* is a key feature in the development of cancer.

Question 157

# Define: Hypovolemia

Answer 157

A condition characterized by a **decreased volume of blood in the body**, often leading to symptoms such as low blood pressure and dizziness. ## Footnote *Hypovolemia* can result from severe dehydration or blood loss.

Question 158

# Define: Hypervolemia

Answer 158

A condition characterized by an **increased volume of blood in the body**, which can lead to high blood pressure and swelling. ## Footnote *Hypervolemia* may occur in patients with heart failure or kidney disease.

Question 159

# Define: Hyponatremia

Answer 159

A condition in which there is a **low sodium concentration in the blood**, potentially leading to confusion, seizures, and coma. ## Footnote *Hyponatremia* can occur due to excessive fluid intake or certain medical conditions.

Question 160

# Define: Hypernatremia

Answer 160

A condition characterized by **high sodium levels in the blood**, often resulting from dehydration or excessive sodium intake. ## Footnote *Hypernatremia* can cause symptoms such as thirst, confusion, and muscle twitching.

Question 161

# Define: Hypokalemia

Answer 161

A condition in which there is a **low level of potassium in the blood**, which can lead to muscle weakness, cramps, and cardiac issues. ## Footnote *Hypokalemia* may occur due to excessive vomiting or certain diuretics.

Question 162

# Define: Hyperkalemia

Answer 162

A condition characterized by **high levels of potassium in the blood**, which can lead to dangerous heart rhythms and muscle weakness. ## Footnote *Hyperkalemia* can occur in patients with kidney failure or those taking potassium-sparing diuretics.

Question 163

# Define: Hypertension (related to endocrine issues)

Answer 163

**High blood pressure** that can result from hormonal imbalances, such as those seen in conditions like hyperaldosteronism or Cushing's syndrome. ## Footnote *Hypertension (related to endocrine issues)* may require specific treatment targeting the underlying hormonal cause.

Question 164

# Define: Hypotension

Answer 164

A condition characterized by **abnormally low blood pressure**, which can lead to dizziness, fainting, and shock. ## Footnote *Hypotension* may occur due to dehydration or certain medications.

Question 165

# Define: Obesity

Answer 165

A medical condition characterized by **excessive body fat accumulation**, often leading to various health issues, including diabetes and heart disease. ## Footnote *Obesity* is a significant risk factor for developing type 2 diabetes.

Question 166

# Define: Insulin sensitivity

Answer 166

The degree to which **cells respond to insulin**; higher sensitivity means lower insulin levels are needed to lower blood sugar. ## Footnote Improving *insulin sensitivity* can help manage blood sugar levels in type 2 diabetes.

Question 167

# Define: Glycemic index

Answer 167

A measure of **how quickly a carbohydrate-containing food raises blood glucose levels**, with higher values indicating faster increases. ## Footnote Foods with a high *glycemic index* can cause rapid spikes in blood sugar.

Question 168

# Define: Gluconeogenesis

Answer 168

The metabolic process by which **glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors**, primarily occurring in the liver. ## Footnote *Gluconeogenesis* is critical during fasting to maintain blood sugar levels.

Question 169

# Define: Glycogenolysis

Answer 169

The process of **breaking down glycogen into glucose** to be used for energy, primarily occurring in the liver and muscles. ## Footnote *Glycogenolysis* is activated during exercise to provide quick energy.

Question 170

# Define: Lipogenesis

Answer 170

The metabolic process of **converting carbohydrates and proteins into fatty acids** for storage as fat in the body. ## Footnote *Lipogenesis* occurs when caloric intake exceeds energy expenditure.

Question 171

# Define: Ketogenesis

Answer 171

The process by which the **body produces ketone bodies from fatty acids**, typically occurring during prolonged fasting or low carbohydrate intake. ## Footnote *Ketogenesis* is a key metabolic pathway during starvation or ketogenic diets.

Question 172

# Define: Anabolism

Answer 172

The metabolic process that **builds larger molecules from smaller ones**, requiring energy, and is essential for growth and tissue repair. ## Footnote *Anabolism* is crucial for muscle growth after exercise.

Question 173

# Define: Catabolism

Answer 173

The metabolic process that **breaks down larger molecules into smaller ones**, releasing energy, and is important for energy production. ## Footnote *Catabolism* occurs during fasting when the body breaks down stored fat for energy.