Oncology & Pathology Flashcards
Introduces cancer classifications, staging, key oncology terms, and diagnostic and treatment methods like chemotherapy and biopsies. (105 cards)
1
Q
Define:
carcinoma
A
A type of cancer that originates in epithelial tissues, which line the surfaces of organs and structures throughout the body.
The biopsy results confirmed that the tumor was a carcinoma of the lung.
2
Q
Define:
sarcoma
A
A malignant tumor that arises from connective tissues such as bone, muscle, fat, or cartilage.
The patient was diagnosed with a rare type of sarcoma affecting her thigh muscle.
3
Q
Define:
lymphoma
A
A cancer that originates in the lymphatic system, which is part of the immune system and includes lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow.
She was treated for lymphoma after experiencing swollen lymph nodes.
4
Q
Define:
leukemia
A
A type of cancer that affects blood cells, typically characterized by the overproduction of abnormal white blood cells.
The doctor explained that leukemia can lead to anemia and increased infections.
5
Q
Define:
melanoma
A
A serious type of skin cancer that develops from melanocytes, the cells that produce the pigment melanin.
He was advised to monitor any changes in moles for signs of melanoma.
6
Q
Define:
glioma
A
A type of tumor that arises from glial cells in the brain or spinal cord.
The MRI revealed a glioma in the patient’s frontal lobe.
7
Q
Define:
myeloma
A
A cancer that originates in plasma cells, a type of white blood cell responsible for producing antibodies.
The diagnosis of myeloma was confirmed after a bone marrow biopsy.
8
Q
Define:
adenocarcinoma
A
A type of carcinoma that originates in glandular tissue, which produces secretions such as mucus or hormones.
She was diagnosed with adenocarcinoma of the pancreas.
9
Q
Define:
squamous cell carcinoma
A
A type of cancer that arises from squamous cells, which are flat cells found in the skin and lining of some organs.
The dermatologist found a suspicious lesion that turned out to be squamous cell carcinoma.
10
Q
Define:
germ cell tumor
A
A type of tumor that originates from germ cells, which are the cells that develop into sperm and eggs.
The testicular mass was identified as a germ cell tumor.
11
Q
Define:
teratoma
A
A type of tumor that can contain different types of tissue, such as hair, muscle, and bone, often arising from germ cells.
Surgery was performed to remove the teratoma from the patient’s ovary.
12
Q
Define:
neuroblastoma
A
A type of cancer that develops from immature nerve cells, primarily affecting children and often found in the adrenal glands.
The child was diagnosed with neuroblastoma after presenting with abdominal pain.
13
Q
Define:
mesothelioma
A
A rare and aggressive cancer that develops in the mesothelium, the protective lining covering many internal organs, often caused by asbestos exposure.
He was exposed to asbestos and later diagnosed with mesothelioma.
14
Q
Define:
basal cell carcinoma
A
A common type of skin cancer that arises from basal cells in the epidermis and is usually caused by prolonged sun exposure.
The dermatologist recommended treatment for her basal cell carcinoma on the nose.
15
Q
Define:
angiosarcoma
A
A rare cancer that originates in the cells of blood vessels or lymph vessels, characterized by rapid growth and spread.
The patient was diagnosed with angiosarcoma following a biopsy of the skin lesion.
16
Q
Define:
tnm staging
A
A system used to describe the extent of cancer based on the size of the tumor (T), lymph node involvement (N), and presence of metastasis (M).
The oncologist explained the patient’s TNM staging to determine the best treatment plan.
17
Q
Define:
stage 0 (in situ)
A
A term used to describe early-stage cancer where abnormal cells are present but have not spread beyond their original location.
The biopsy indicated stage 0 (in situ) breast cancer, which is highly treatable.
18
Q
Define:
stage i-iv
A
Stages of cancer progression where Stage I indicates localized disease and Stage IV indicates advanced disease with metastasis.
Her cancer was classified as stage IV, indicating that it had spread to distant organs.
19
Q
Define:
tumor grade
A
A classification that describes how abnormal cancer cells look under a microscope and how quickly the tumor is likely to grow.
The pathologist assigned a high tumor grade to the aggressive cancer cells.
20
Q
Define:
differentiation
A
The process by which cells become specialized to perform specific functions, with well-differentiated cells resembling normal cells, while poorly differentiated cells do not.
The tumor showed low differentiation, indicating aggressive behavior.
21
Q
Define:
anaplasia
A
A condition where cancer cells lose their specialized features and revert to a more primitive, undifferentiated state, often associated with aggressive tumors.
The biopsy revealed significant anaplasia, indicating a poor prognosis.
22
Q
Define:
metastasis
A
The spread of cancer cells from the original (primary) site to distant parts of the body, forming new (secondary) tumors.
The imaging studies showed metastasis to the liver and lungs.
23
Q
Define:
localized
A
Referring to cancer that is confined to the original site and has not spread to nearby tissues or distant locations.
The surgeon indicated that the tumor was localized and could be removed completely.
24
Q
Define:
regional spread
A
The extension of cancer from the primary site to nearby lymph nodes or surrounding tissues.
The pathology report indicated regional spread of the tumor to adjacent lymph nodes.
25
# Define:
distant metastasis
The **spread of cancer cells to distant organs or tissues** away from the primary tumor site.
## Footnote
The diagnosis included *distant metastasis* to the bones and brain.
26
# Define:
lymph node involvement
The presence of **cancer cells in the lymph nodes**, indicating that the cancer has spread from its original site.
## Footnote
The oncologist discussed the implications of *lymph node involvement* in the treatment plan.
27
# Define:
micrometastasis
**Small clusters of cancer cells** that have spread from the primary tumor but are not detectable by standard imaging techniques.
## Footnote
The pathologist found evidence of *micrometastasis* during the examination of lymph nodes.
28
# Define:
recurrence
The **return of cancer after treatment** and a period of improvement, indicating that the cancer has returned to the original site or spread elsewhere.
## Footnote
The patient was monitored closely for signs of *recurrence* after completing treatment.
29
# Define:
progression
The process by which **cancer worsens or advances**, often measured by an increase in tumor size or the development of new metastases.
## Footnote
The scans showed *progression* of the disease despite ongoing treatment.
30
# Define:
residual disease
**Cancer cells that remain in the body after treatment**, which can lead to recurrence.
## Footnote
The doctor explained that *residual disease* was detected during follow-up imaging.
31
# Define:
malignancy
The quality of being malignant, indicating that a **tumor is cancerous** and capable of invading surrounding tissues and spreading to distant sites.
## Footnote
The biopsy results confirmed the presence of *malignancy* in the tissue sample.
32
# Define:
benign
A term used to describe a **tumor that is not cancerous** and does not invade nearby tissues or spread to other parts of the body.
## Footnote
The doctor reassured her that the growth was *benign* and did not require treatment.
33
# Define:
neoplasm
An **abnormal mass of tissue** that results from **excessive cell growth**, which can be benign or malignant.
## Footnote
The MRI revealed a *neoplasm* that needed further evaluation.
34
# Define:
hyperplasia
An **increase in the number of cells in a tissue or organ**, which can lead to an enlarged structure but is not necessarily cancerous.
## Footnote
The biopsy showed *hyperplasia* in the prostate gland, indicating a non-cancerous enlargement.
35
# Define:
dysplasia
The **presence of abnormal cells within a tissue**, which can be a precursor to cancer but does not necessarily indicate malignancy.
## Footnote
The cervical smear indicated *dysplasia*, prompting further testing.
36
# Define:
atypia
The **presence of abnormal cells** that may indicate a higher risk of cancer but do not confirm a diagnosis of malignancy.
## Footnote
The pathologist noted *atypia* in the tissue sample, which warranted closer observation.
37
# Define:
oncogene
A **mutated gene** that has the potential to **cause normal cells to become cancerous**, often involved in the regulation of cell growth and division.
## Footnote
Researchers are studying the role of specific *oncogenes* in the development of breast cancer.
38
# Define:
tumor suppressor gene
A gene that **protects a cell from one step on the path to cancer**; when mutated, it may lead to uncontrolled cell growth.
## Footnote
The loss of function in the *tumor suppressor gene* p53 is commonly associated with various cancers.
39
# Define:
mutation
A **change in the DNA sequence** that can lead to alterations in gene function and may contribute to the development of cancer.
## Footnote
Genetic testing revealed a significant *mutation* linked to an increased cancer risk.
40
# Define:
apoptosis
A **programmed process of cell death** that is essential for maintaining healthy tissue development and homeostasis; its disruption can lead to cancer.
## Footnote
Cancer cells often evade *apoptosis*, allowing them to survive and proliferate.
41
# Define:
angiogenesis
The **formation of new blood vessels from existing ones**, a process that tumors exploit to secure their own blood supply for growth.
## Footnote
Anti-angiogenic therapies aim to inhibit *angiogenesis* in tumors.
42
# Define:
proliferation
The **rapid increase in the number of cells**, which can be a characteristic of cancer growth when cells divide uncontrollably.
## Footnote
The study focused on the *proliferation* rates of cancer cells in response to treatment.
43
# Define:
invasion
The **ability of cancer cells to infiltrate surrounding tissues**, a key characteristic that distinguishes malignant tumors from benign ones.
## Footnote
The pathology report confirmed *invasion* into the surrounding lymphatic tissue.
44
# Define:
tumor microenvironment
The **surrounding cells, blood vessels, and extracellular matrix** that interact with and influence tumor growth and behavior.
## Footnote
Research is being conducted on how the *tumor microenvironment* affects cancer progression.
45
# Define:
carcinogenesis
The process by which **normal cells are transformed into cancer cells**, involving genetic changes and environmental factors.
## Footnote
Understanding *carcinogenesis* is crucial for developing effective cancer prevention strategies.
46
# Define:
biopsy
A medical procedure that involves the **removal of tissue samples for examination** under a microscope to diagnose disease, including cancer.
## Footnote
The doctor recommended a *biopsy* to confirm the diagnosis of the suspicious lesion.
47
# Define:
histology
The study of the **microscopic structure of tissues**, often used in pathology to diagnose diseases, including cancer.
## Footnote
The *histology* report provided important insights into the tumor's characteristics.
48
# Define:
cytology
The examination of **individual cells to diagnose diseases**, including cancer, often through techniques like Pap smears.
## Footnote
The *cytology* results indicated abnormal cell changes that required further investigation.
49
# Define:
immunohistochemistry (IHC)
A laboratory technique used to **visualize specific proteins in tissue sections using antibodies**, aiding in cancer diagnosis and classification.
## Footnote
*Immunohistochemistry (IHC)* was performed to determine the presence of specific tumor markers.
50
# Define:
fine-needle aspiration (FNA)
A minimally invasive procedure that uses a **thin needle to extract cells or fluid** from a lump or tumor for diagnostic purposes.
## Footnote
The doctor performed a *fine-needle aspiration (FNA)* to evaluate the thyroid nodule.
51
# Define:
core needle biopsy
A procedure that uses a **larger needle to remove a core of tissue from a suspicious area for examination**, often providing more information than FNA.
## Footnote
A *core needle biopsy* was conducted to obtain a more substantial tissue sample from the breast mass.
52
# Define:
frozen section
A rapid diagnostic procedure where a **tissue sample is frozen, sliced, and examined under a microscope** during surgery to provide immediate results.
## Footnote
The surgeon requested a *frozen section* to confirm the presence of cancer during the operation.
53
# Define:
pathological specimen
A **sample of tissue or cells** taken for **examination to diagnose disease**, typically analyzed in a laboratory setting.
## Footnote
The *pathological specimen* was sent for further analysis to determine the tumor type.
54
# Define:
gross examination
The initial inspection of a **tissue specimen with the naked eye before microscopic analysis**, assessing size, shape, and color.
## Footnote
The pathologist conducted a *gross examination* of the tumor before preparing it for histology.
55
# Define:
microscopic examination
The analysis of **tissue samples under a microscope** to identify cellular characteristics and diagnose diseases.
## Footnote
The *microscopic examination* revealed abnormal cell structures indicative of cancer.
56
# Define:
hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stain
A widely used **staining technique** in histology that **differentiates between cellular components**, allowing for the visualization of tissue architecture.
## Footnote
The *hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stain* highlighted the tumor's structure during the analysis.
57
# Define:
tumor markers
**Substances produced by cancer cells** or by the body in response to cancer, used to help diagnose and monitor treatment effectiveness.
## Footnote
The doctor ordered blood tests to check for specific *tumor markers* associated with prostate cancer.
58
# Define:
molecular profiling
A technique used to **analyze the genetic makeup of a tumor**, helping to identify specific mutations and guide personalized treatment options.
## Footnote
Molecular *profiling* was performed to determine targeted therapies for the patient.
59
# Define:
genomic sequencing
A laboratory method used to **determine the complete DNA sequence of an organism's genome**, providing insights into genetic mutations and cancer risks.
## Footnote
The results of *genomic sequencing* revealed a mutation linked to increased breast cancer risk.
60
# Define:
flow cytometry
A technique used to **analyze the physical and chemical characteristics of cells or particles**, often used in hematology and oncology for diagnosing blood cancers.
## Footnote
*Flow cytometry* was utilized to assess the patient's lymphocyte populations.
61
# Define:
imaging (CT, MRI, PET)
Diagnostic techniques that **create detailed images of the body's internal structures** to identify tumors and assess their size and spread.
## Footnote
The oncologist reviewed the *imaging* results to determine the extent of the disease.
62
# Define:
mammography
An **X-ray examination of the breast** used to detect tumors and abnormalities, particularly in asymptomatic women.
## Footnote
The annual *mammography* screening revealed a suspicious mass that needed further evaluation.
63
# Define:
ultrasound
A diagnostic imaging technique that **uses sound waves to create images of internal organs**, often used to evaluate masses or cysts.
## Footnote
The *ultrasound* showed a fluid-filled cyst in the patient's abdomen.
64
# Define:
bone scan
A nuclear imaging technique used to **evaluate bone metabolism and identify abnormalities**, such as fractures or tumors, throughout the skeletal system.
## Footnote
The *bone scan* indicated increased activity in the area of the suspected lesion.
65
# Define:
endoscopy
A procedure that uses a **flexible tube with a camera to visualize the interior of hollow organs**, often used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.
## Footnote
The gastroenterologist performed an *endoscopy* to examine the patient's digestive tract.
66
# Define:
colonoscopy
A specific type of endoscopy used to **examine the colon and rectum for abnormalities**, including polyps and cancer.
## Footnote
The *colonoscopy* revealed several polyps that were removed for further testing.
67
# Define:
tumor marker tests (e.g., PSA, CA-125)
Blood tests used to **measure substances produced by tumors or the body in response to cancer**, helping in diagnosis and monitoring.
## Footnote
The physician ordered *tumor marker tests* to assess the patient’s prostate cancer status.
68
# Define:
liquid biopsy
A minimally invasive test that **detects cancer cells or genetic material from tumors in blood samples**, providing insights into cancer presence and progression.
## Footnote
The oncologist recommended a *liquid biopsy* to monitor the patient's response to treatment.
69
# Define:
complete blood count (CBC)
A **common blood test** that measures various components of blood, including red and white blood cells, used to assess overall health and detect disorders.
## Footnote
The *complete blood count (CBC)* showed a low hemoglobin level, indicating anemia.
70
# Define:
bone marrow biopsy
A procedure that involves taking a **sample of bone marrow for examination to diagnose blood disorders**, including leukemia and lymphoma.
## Footnote
The hematologist performed a *bone marrow biopsy* to evaluate abnormal blood counts.
71
# Define:
lumbar puncture
A medical procedure that involves **inserting a needle into the spinal canal to collect cerebrospinal fluid** for diagnostic testing.
## Footnote
A *lumbar puncture* was performed to rule out central nervous system involvement of the cancer.
72
# Define:
pap smear
A **screening procedure for cervical cancer** that involves collecting cells from the cervix to detect precancerous changes.
## Footnote
The results of the *Pap smear* indicated the need for further evaluation.
73
# Define:
genetic testing
A medical test that **analyzes DNA to identify genetic predispositions to certain diseases**, including various cancers.
## Footnote
The family history prompted *genetic testing* for BRCA mutations.
74
# Define:
staging laparoscopy
A minimally invasive surgical procedure used to **assess the extent of cancer** by visually examining the abdominal cavity and possibly taking biopsies.
## Footnote
The surgeon performed a *staging laparoscopy* to evaluate the spread of the disease.
75
# Define:
sentinel lymph node biopsy
A surgical procedure that **removes and examines the sentinel lymph node(s)** to determine if cancer has spread from the primary tumor.
## Footnote
The *sentinel lymph node biopsy* helped guide the treatment plan for her breast cancer.
76
# Define:
chemotherapy
A type of cancer treatment that **uses drugs to kill cancer cells or stop their growth**, often administered intravenously or orally.
## Footnote
The patient began *chemotherapy* to treat her aggressive lymphoma.
77
# Define:
radiation therapy
A treatment that **uses high-energy radiation to kill cancer cells or shrink tumors**, often used in conjunction with other therapies.
## Footnote
The oncologist recommended *radiation therapy* to target the remaining tumor.
78
# Define:
immunotherapy
A type of cancer treatment that **harnesses the body's immune system to fight cancer**, often using checkpoint inhibitors or monoclonal antibodies.
## Footnote
The patient was enrolled in a clinical trial for *immunotherapy* targeting melanoma.
79
# Define:
targeted therapy
A type of cancer treatment that specifically **targets cancer cells based on their genetic or molecular characteristics**, minimizing damage to normal cells.
## Footnote
The oncologist discussed *targeted therapy* options based on the tumor's genetic profile.
80
# Define:
hormone therapy
A treatment that **slows or stops the growth of hormone-sensitive tumors** by blocking the body's natural hormones or lowering hormone levels.
## Footnote
She started *hormone therapy* to manage her breast cancer.
81
# Define:
monoclonal antibodies
**Laboratory-made molecules** that can **mimic the immune system's ability to fight off harmful pathogens**, often used in cancer treatment to target specific antigens.
## Footnote
The patient was treated with *monoclonal antibodies* to target her lymphoma.
82
# Define:
car t-cell therapy
A form of immunotherapy that **modifies a patient's T cells** to better recognize and attack cancer cells.
## Footnote
After exhausting traditional treatments, the patient opted for *CAR T-cell therapy*.
83
# Define:
stem cell transplant
A medical procedure that **replaces damaged or destroyed bone marrow with healthy stem cells**, often used in the treatment of blood cancers.
## Footnote
The doctor recommended a *stem cell transplant* following the patient's remission.
84
# Define:
bone marrow transplant
A procedure that involves **replacing diseased or damaged bone marrow with healthy bone marrow**, which can be obtained from the patient or a donor.
## Footnote
A *bone marrow transplant* was necessary to treat the patient's leukemia.
85
# Define:
palliative care
A specialized medical care focused on **providing relief from symptoms and stress of serious illness**, aiming to improve quality of life for patients and families.
## Footnote
The team provided *palliative care* to manage the patient's pain and improve comfort.
86
# Define:
adjuvant therapy
**Additional treatment given after the primary treatment** to lower the risk of cancer recurrence, often including chemotherapy, radiation, or hormone therapy.
## Footnote
The oncologist recommended *adjuvant therapy* after surgery to remove the tumor.
87
# Define:
neoadjuvant therapy
**Treatment given before the primary treatment**, often used to shrink tumors prior to surgery, improving outcomes.
## Footnote
The patient received *neoadjuvant therapy* to reduce the size of the tumor before surgery.
88
# Define:
combination therapy
A treatment approach that uses **two or more therapies**, such as chemotherapy and radiation, to enhance effectiveness and improve patient outcomes.
## Footnote
The treatment plan included *combination therapy* to attack the cancer from multiple angles.
89
# Define:
precision medicine
An innovative approach to patient care that tailors **treatment based on individual genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors**.
## Footnote
The oncologist discussed *precision medicine* options based on the patient’s genetic profile.
90
# Define:
clinical trials
Research studies that **test new treatments or therapies on human participants** to evaluate their safety and effectiveness.
## Footnote
The patient enrolled in *clinical trials* to access cutting-edge cancer therapies.
91
# Define:
remission
A period during which the **signs and symptoms of cancer decrease or disappear**, though it does not always mean the cancer is cured.
## Footnote
The patient celebrated after achieving *remission* following treatment.
92
# Define:
relapse
The **return of cancer** after a period of improvement or remission, indicating that the disease has recurred.
## Footnote
The oncologist informed her of the *relapse* of her cancer after a year of remission.
93
# Define:
refractory cancer
**Cancer that does not respond to treatment** and continues to grow despite therapy.
## Footnote
The patient was diagnosed with *refractory cancer*, requiring alternative treatment strategies.
94
# Define:
cure
A term used to describe the **complete eradication of cancer from the body**, with no signs of disease remaining.
## Footnote
The oncologist confirmed that the patient was in *cure* after successful treatment.
95
# Define:
survival rate
The percentage of patients who are **alive after a specific period following a cancer diagnosis**, often used to gauge prognosis.
## Footnote
The *survival rate* for early-stage breast cancer is significantly higher than for advanced stages.
96
# Define:
prognosis
The **likely outcome or course of a disease**, often based on statistical data and individual patient factors.
## Footnote
The doctor provided a *prognosis* based on the tumor's size and grade.
97
# Define:
risk factors
Characteristics or behaviors that **increase the likelihood of developing a disease**, including cancer.
## Footnote
Smoking is a well-known *risk factor* for developing lung cancer.
98
# Define:
screening
Tests performed on asymptomatic individuals to **detect potential health disorders or diseases**, including cancer, at an early stage.
## Footnote
Regular *screening* for colon cancer is recommended starting at age 45.
99
# Define:
prevention
Actions taken to **reduce the risk of developing cancer**, including lifestyle changes and vaccinations.
## Footnote
Implementing healthy habits is crucial for cancer *prevention*.
100
# Define:
side effects
**Unintended effects or reactions** that occur as a result of medical treatment, including those from chemotherapy or radiation.
## Footnote
The patient experienced several *side effects* from the chemotherapy, including nausea and fatigue.
101
# Define:
toxicity
The degree to which a **substance can damage an organism**, often used to describe harmful effects of cancer treatments.
## Footnote
The treatment was adjusted due to concerns about *toxicity* affecting the patient's health.
102
# Define:
cachexia
A **complex syndrome** characterized by weight loss, muscle wasting, and decreased appetite, often associated with chronic illnesses like cancer.
## Footnote
The patient was diagnosed with *cachexia*, which is common in advanced cancer cases.
103
# Define:
paraneoplastic syndrome
A **group of symptoms** that occur in some cancer patients due to the production of hormones or other substances by the tumor, affecting various body systems.
## Footnote
The patient presented with *paraneoplastic syndrome*, which complicated her cancer treatment.
104
# Define:
oncologist
A **medical doctor** who specializes in **diagnosing and treating cancer**, including administering chemotherapy and coordinating patient care.
## Footnote
The *oncologist* discussed the treatment options available for her diagnosis.
105
# Define:
multidisciplinary team
A group of **healthcare professionals** from various specialties who collaborate to provide **comprehensive care for cancer patients**.
## Footnote
The *multidisciplinary team* met to discuss the patient's treatment plan.
