Nervous System Flashcards
Covers the central and peripheral nervous systems, neurological disorders, and diagnostic tests like EEGs, CT scans, and MRIs. (165 cards)
1
Q
Define:
Neuron
A
A specialized cell that transmits nerve impulses in the nervous system.
The neuron is the basic functional unit of the nervous system.
2
Q
Define:
Axon
A
A long, slender projection of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body.
The axon transmits signals to other neurons or muscles.
3
Q
Define:
Dendrite
A
Branch-like structures of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.
The dendrites collect information from surrounding neurons.
4
Q
Define:
Synapse
A
The junction between two neurons where communication occurs.
The signal was transmitted across the synapse to the next neuron.
5
Q
Define:
Myelin Sheath
A
A fatty layer that insulates axons and speeds up electrical transmission.
The myelin sheath allows for faster signal conduction along the neuron.
6
Q
Define:
Nodes of Ranvier
A
Gaps in the myelin sheath along an axon that facilitate rapid signal transmission.
The action potential jumps between the nodes of Ranvier during conduction.
7
Q
Define:
Neurotransmitter
A
Chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse between neurons.
Dopamine is a well-known neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation.
8
Q
Define:
Soma (Cell Body)
A
The main part of a neuron containing the nucleus and organelles.
The soma houses the cell’s genetic material and metabolic machinery.
9
Q
Define:
Glial Cells
A
Supportive cells in the nervous system that provide structural and functional support to neurons.
Glial cells play a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis in the nervous system.
10
Q
Define:
Astrocyte
A
A type of glial cell that provides support and nutrients to neurons and maintains the blood-brain barrier.
Astrocytes help regulate blood flow in the brain.
11
Q
Define:
Oligodendrocyte
A
A glial cell that produces myelin in the central nervous system.
Oligodendrocytes are essential for insulating axons in the CNS.
12
Q
Define:
Schwann Cell
A
A glial cell that produces myelin in the peripheral nervous system.
Schwann cells are responsible for myelinating peripheral nerves.
13
Q
Define:
Microglia
A
Immune cells of the central nervous system that respond to injury and disease.
Microglia act as the first line of defense against pathogens in the CNS.
14
Q
Define:
Ependymal Cell
A
Glial cells that line the ventricles of the brain and produce cerebrospinal fluid.
Ependymal cells help circulate cerebrospinal fluid in the brain.
15
Q
Define:
Central Nervous System (CNS)
A
The part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.
The central nervous system integrates and processes information from the body.
16
Q
Define:
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
A
The part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord, including sensory and motor neurons.
The peripheral nervous system connects the CNS to the limbs and organs.
17
Q
Define:
Brain
A
The central organ of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information and coordinating responses.
The brain is involved in cognition, emotion, and motor function.
18
Q
Define:
Spinal Cord
A
The cylindrical structure of nervous tissue that extends from the brain down the vertebral column, transmitting signals between the brain and body.
The spinal cord is critical for reflex actions and communication with the brain.
19
Q
Define:
Cerebrum
A
The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher brain functions such as thought, action, and emotion.
The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres and controls voluntary movements.
20
Q
Define:
Cerebral Cortex
A
The outer layer of the cerebrum, involved in complex functions such as perception, thought, and decision-making.
The cerebral cortex processes sensory information and is crucial for language.
21
Q
Define:
Cerebellum
A
A part of the brain located at the back, responsible for coordination and balance.
The cerebellum fine-tunes motor movements and helps maintain posture.
22
Q
Define:
Brainstem
A
The part of the brain that connects the cerebrum to the spinal cord and controls basic life functions such as breathing and heart rate.
The brainstem regulates vital functions and is crucial for survival.
23
Q
Define:
Medulla Oblongata
A
The lower part of the brainstem that controls autonomic functions like heart rate and respiration.
The medulla oblongata is essential for involuntary functions.
24
Q
Define:
Pons
A
A structure in the brainstem that connects different parts of the brain and regulates sleep and arousal.
The pons plays a key role in regulating sleep cycles.
25
# Define:
Midbrain
A **small region of the brainstem** that is involved in vision, hearing, and motor control.
## Footnote
The *midbrain* is important for reflexive responses to visual and auditory stimuli.
26
# Define:
Thalamus
A **relay station in the brain** that processes and transmits sensory information to the cerebral cortex.
## Footnote
The *thalamus* acts as a hub for sensory data before it reaches higher brain areas.
27
# Define:
Hypothalamus
A **region of the brain** that regulates many autonomic functions, including temperature, hunger, and thirst.
## Footnote
The *hypothalamus* plays a critical role in maintaining homeostasis.
28
# Define:
Pituitary Gland
A **small gland at the base of the brain** that produces hormones regulating various bodily functions.
## Footnote
The *pituitary gland* is often referred to as the 'master gland' due to its influence on other glands.
29
# Define:
Pineal Gland
A **small endocrine gland in the brain** that produces melatonin, which regulates sleep-wake cycles.
## Footnote
The *pineal gland* helps control circadian rhythms by secreting melatonin.
30
# Define:
Basal Ganglia
A **group of nuclei in the brain** involved in coordinating movement and regulating voluntary motor control.
## Footnote
The *basal ganglia* help in the planning and execution of smooth movements.
31
# Define:
Limbic System
A **complex system of structures in the brain** involved in emotion, memory, and motivation.
## Footnote
The *limbic system* is crucial for emotional responses and memory formation.
32
# Define:
Amygdala
An **almond-shaped structure in the brain** that plays a key role in processing emotions, especially fear and pleasure.
## Footnote
The *amygdala* is activated during threatening situations.
33
# Define:
Hippocampus
A **region of the brain** associated with memory formation and spatial navigation.
## Footnote
The *hippocampus* is critical for converting short-term memories into long-term memories.
34
# Define:
Corpus Callosum
A **thick band of nerve fibers** connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, facilitating communication between them.
## Footnote
The *corpus callosum* allows for the transfer of information between the two sides of the brain.
35
# Define:
Ventricles
**Cavities within the brain** that are filled with cerebrospinal fluid, providing cushioning and support.
## Footnote
The *ventricles* help circulate cerebrospinal fluid, protecting the brain.
36
# Define:
Meninges
**Three protective membranes** that cover the brain and spinal cord.
## Footnote
The *meninges* consist of the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.
37
# Define:
Dura Mater
The **outermost layer of the meninges**, providing a tough protective covering for the brain and spinal cord.
## Footnote
The *dura mater* is the thickest and most durable of the meningeal layers.
38
# Define:
Arachnoid Mater
The **middle layer of the meninges**, which is web-like and contains cerebrospinal fluid.
## Footnote
The *arachnoid mater* helps cushion the brain within the skull.
39
# Define:
Pia Mater
The **innermost layer of the meninges** that closely adheres to the surface of the brain and spinal cord.
## Footnote
The *pia mater* contains blood vessels that supply the brain.
40
# Define:
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
A **clear fluid** that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord, providing cushioning and nutrient transport.
## Footnote
*Cerebrospinal fluid* acts as a shock absorber for the brain.
41
# Define:
Gray Matter
Regions of the nervous system containing **neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and synapses**.
## Footnote
*Gray matter* is involved in processing information and is found in the brain's cortex.
42
# Define:
White Matter
Regions of the nervous system consisting **mainly of myelinated axons**, facilitating communication between different brain areas.
## Footnote
*White matter* provides the pathways for signals to travel across the brain.
43
# Define:
Cranial Nerves
**Twelve pairs of nerves** that emerge directly from the brain and are responsible for sensory and motor functions of the head and neck.
## Footnote
The *cranial nerves* control facial movements and sensations.
44
# Define:
Spinal Nerves
**Nerves** that emerge from the **spinal cord**, carrying motor and sensory information to and from the body.
## Footnote
*Spinal nerves* are crucial for transmitting signals to and from the limbs.
45
# Define:
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
The part of the nervous system that **regulates involuntary bodily functions**, such as heart rate and digestion.
## Footnote
The *autonomic nervous system* controls functions without conscious effort.
46
# Define:
Sympathetic Nervous System
A division of the autonomic nervous system that **prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses** during stressful situations.
## Footnote
The *sympathetic nervous system* increases heart rate during emergencies.
47
# Define:
Parasympathetic Nervous System
A division of the autonomic nervous system that **promotes 'rest and digest' functions**, calming the body after stress.
## Footnote
The *parasympathetic nervous system* helps lower heart rate after a stressful event.
48
# Define:
Enteric Nervous System
A complex network of neurons that **governs the function of the gastrointestinal system**.
## Footnote
The *enteric nervous system* is often referred to as the 'second brain' due to its autonomy.
49
# Define:
Somatic Nervous System
The **part of the peripheral nervous system** that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
## Footnote
The *somatic nervous system* allows us to move our arms and legs consciously.
50
# Define:
Action Potential
A **rapid change in the electrical charge of a neuron** that transmits a signal along the axon.
## Footnote
An *action potential* is triggered when the threshold is reached in a neuron.
51
# Define:
Resting Membrane Potential
The **electrical potential difference** across the membrane of a resting neuron, typically around -70 mV.
## Footnote
The *resting membrane potential* is essential for the generation of action potentials.
52
# Define:
Depolarization
A **decrease in the electrical charge difference** across a neuron's membrane, making it more positive.
## Footnote
*Depolarization* occurs when sodium channels open during an action potential.
53
# Define:
Repolarization
The process of **returning the membrane potential of a neuron to its resting state** after depolarization.
## Footnote
*Repolarization* helps restore the neuron's resting membrane potential.
54
# Define:
Hyperpolarization
An **increase in the electrical charge difference** across a neuron's membrane, making it more negative.
## Footnote
*Hyperpolarization* makes it less likely for a neuron to fire an action potential.
55
# Define:
Synaptic Transmission
The process by which **neurotransmitters are released** from one neuron and bind to receptors on another neuron.
## Footnote
*Synaptic transmission* is essential for communication between neurons.
56
# Define:
Neuroplasticity
The ability of the **nervous system to change and adapt** in response to experience or injury.
## Footnote
*Neuroplasticity* allows the brain to reorganize itself after damage.
57
# Define:
Reflex Arc
The neural pathway that **mediates a reflex action**, consisting of sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons.
## Footnote
A simple *reflex arc* can allow a quick withdrawal from a painful stimulus.
58
# Define:
Motor Neuron
A **type of neuron** that **transmits signals** from the central nervous system to muscles, causing movement.
## Footnote
*Motor neurons* are responsible for voluntary movements of the body.
59
# Define:
Sensory Neuron
A neuron that **carries sensory information** from the body to the central nervous system.
## Footnote
*Sensory neurons* are activated by stimuli like touch and temperature.
60
# Define:
Interneuron
A neuron that **connects sensory and motor neurons**, playing a crucial role in reflexes and central nervous system processing.
## Footnote
*Interneurons* facilitate communication between sensory and motor pathways.
61
# Define:
Effector
A muscle or gland that **responds to signals from motor neurons**, producing a response.
## Footnote
The muscle acts as an *effector* when it contracts in response to a motor neuron signal.
62
# Define:
Receptor
A protein molecule on a cell membrane that **receives and binds to specific neurotransmitters** or hormones.
## Footnote
The *receptor* on the neuron binds to the neurotransmitter released from the presynaptic neuron.
63
# Define:
Sensory Pathway
A neural pathway that **transmits sensory information** from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.
## Footnote
The *sensory pathway* is crucial for processing touch and pain signals.
64
# Define:
Motor Pathway
A neural pathway that **carries motor commands** from the central nervous system to muscles.
## Footnote
The *motor pathway* is involved in executing voluntary movements.
65
# Define:
Proprioception
The body's ability to **sense its position and movement** in space through sensory receptors.
## Footnote
*Proprioception* helps us maintain balance and coordination while moving.
66
# Define:
Nociceptor
A sensory receptor that **responds to potentially harmful stimuli** by sending pain signals to the brain.
## Footnote
*Nociceptors* are activated during injury, alerting the body to pain.
67
# Define:
Mechanoreceptor
A sensory receptor that **responds to mechanical pressure or distortion**, such as touch or sound.
## Footnote
*Mechanoreceptors* are essential for our sense of touch and hearing.
68
# Define:
Chemoreceptor
A sensory receptor that **responds to chemical stimuli**, such as taste and smell.
## Footnote
*Chemoreceptors* allow us to perceive different flavors and odors.
69
# Define:
Photoreceptor
A sensory receptor that **responds to light**, enabling vision.
## Footnote
*Photoreceptors* in the retina convert light into neural signals for vision.
70
# Define:
Thermoreceptor
A sensory receptor that **responds to changes in temperature**.
## Footnote
*Thermoreceptors* help us detect hot and cold sensations.
71
# Define:
Stroke (Cerebrovascular Accident)
A medical emergency resulting from **interrupted blood supply to the brain**, leading to brain damage.
## Footnote
A *stroke* can cause sudden weakness or numbness on one side of the body.
72
# Define:
Ischemic Stroke
A type of stroke caused by a **blockage in a blood vessel** supplying blood to the brain.
## Footnote
An *ischemic stroke* often occurs due to a blood clot.
73
# Define:
Hemorrhagic Stroke
A type of stroke caused by **bleeding in the brain**, often due to a ruptured blood vessel.
## Footnote
A *hemorrhagic stroke* can lead to increased intracranial pressure.
74
# Define:
Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA)
A temporary period of symptoms similar to those of a stroke, often referred to as a '**mini-stroke**.'
## Footnote
A *transient ischemic attack* can serve as a warning sign for future strokes.
75
# Define:
Aneurysm
An **abnormal bulge in a blood vessel** caused by weakness in the vessel wall, which can lead to hemorrhage.
## Footnote
An *aneurysm* in the brain can cause severe headaches if it ruptures.
76
# Define:
Epilepsy
A neurological disorder characterized by **recurrent seizures** due to abnormal electrical activity in the brain.
## Footnote
*Epilepsy* can manifest in various forms depending on the brain regions affected.
77
# Define:
Seizure
A **sudden, uncontrolled electrical disturbance** in the brain that can cause changes in behavior, movements, or consciousness.
## Footnote
During a *seizure*, the individual may experience convulsions or loss of awareness.
78
# Define:
Status Epilepticus
A medical emergency characterized by **prolonged or repeated seizures** without recovery between them.
## Footnote
*Status epilepticus* requires immediate medical intervention to prevent brain damage.
79
# Define:
Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
A **chronic autoimmune disease** that affects the **central nervous system**, leading to demyelination and various neurological symptoms.
## Footnote
*Multiple sclerosis* can cause muscle weakness, vision problems, and coordination issues.
80
# Define:
Parkinson’s Disease
A progressive neurological disorder that affects **movement, causing tremors, rigidity, and bradykinesia**.
## Footnote
*Parkinson’s disease* results from the degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons.
81
# Define:
Alzheimer’s Disease
A progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by **memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes**.
## Footnote
*Alzheimer’s disease* is the most common cause of dementia in older adults.
82
# Define:
Dementia
A general term for a **decline in cognitive function** severe enough to interfere with daily life, often due to neurodegenerative diseases.
## Footnote
*Dementia* can affect memory, thinking, and social abilities.
83
# Define:
Huntington’s Disease
A **hereditary neurodegenerative disorder** characterized by motor dysfunction, cognitive decline, and psychiatric symptoms.
## Footnote
*Huntington’s disease* typically manifests in mid-adulthood.
84
# Define:
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)
A **progressive neurodegenerative disease** that affects motor neurons, leading to muscle weakness and atrophy.
## Footnote
*ALS* is often referred to as Lou Gehrig's disease.
85
# Define:
Peripheral Neuropathy
A condition resulting from **damage to the peripheral nerves**, causing weakness, numbness, and pain, usually in the hands and feet.
## Footnote
*Peripheral neuropathy* can result from diabetes, infections, or toxic exposure.
86
# Define:
Guillain-Barré Syndrome
An autoimmune disorder in which the **body's immune system attacks the peripheral nerves**, leading to muscle weakness and paralysis.
## Footnote
*Guillain-Barré syndrome* often follows a viral infection.
87
# Define:
Myasthenia Gravis
A **chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disorder** characterized by varying degrees of weakness of the skeletal muscles, which are responsible for breathing and moving parts of the body.
## Footnote
Patients with *Myasthenia Gravis* often experience muscle weakness that worsens with activity.
88
# Define:
Bell’s Palsy
A condition that causes **sudden, temporary weakness or paralysis of the muscles on one side of the face** due to inflammation of the facial nerve.
## Footnote
After a viral infection, she developed *Bell’s Palsy* and could not close her left eye.
89
# Define:
Trigeminal Neuralgia
A chronic pain condition affecting the **trigeminal nerve in the face**, causing intense, stabbing pain in response to stimuli such as touch or temperature.
## Footnote
He experienced episodes of *trigeminal neuralgia* whenever he brushed his teeth.
90
# Define:
Meningitis
An **inflammation of the protective membranes** covering the brain and spinal cord, typically caused by an infection.
## Footnote
The doctor suspected *meningitis* after the patient presented with fever and a stiff neck.
91
# Define:
Encephalitis
An **inflammation of the brain tissue**, often caused by a viral infection, leading to symptoms like headache, fever, and confusion.
## Footnote
The patient was diagnosed with *encephalitis* following a severe headache and altered mental state.
92
# Define:
Brain Tumor
An **abnormal growth of cells in the brain** that can be benign or malignant, causing various neurological symptoms.
## Footnote
The MRI revealed a *brain tumor* that required immediate intervention.
93
# Define:
Glioblastoma
A **highly aggressive type of brain tumor** that arises from glial cells, characterized by rapid growth and poor prognosis.
## Footnote
She was diagnosed with *glioblastoma*, which is known for its resistance to treatment.
94
# Define:
Hydrocephalus
A condition characterized by an **accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)** within the ventricles of the brain, leading to increased intracranial pressure.
## Footnote
The infant was treated for *hydrocephalus* after showing signs of increased head circumference.
95
# Define:
Spinal Cord Injury
**Damage to the spinal cord** that results in a loss of function, mobility, or sensation, often leading to paralysis.
## Footnote
After the accident, he suffered a *spinal cord injury* that left him paralyzed from the waist down.
96
# Define:
Concussion
A type of traumatic brain injury caused by a **blow to the head or body** that causes the brain to move rapidly back and forth.
## Footnote
She was diagnosed with a *concussion* after falling during the soccer game.
97
# Define:
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
An injury to the brain caused by an **external force**, resulting in **temporary or permanent impairment** of cognitive, physical, and psychosocial functions.
## Footnote
The veteran suffered a *traumatic brain injury (TBI)* during combat, affecting his memory.
98
# Define:
Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)
A progressive neurodegenerative disease caused by **repeated head injuries**, leading to cognitive decline and mood disorders.
## Footnote
Former athletes often face a risk of *chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)* due to multiple concussions.
99
# Define:
Migraine
A neurological condition characterized by **intense, debilitating headaches** often accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound.
## Footnote
She had to lie down in a dark room to alleviate her *migraine* symptoms.
100
# Define:
Cluster Headache
A series of **relatively short but extremely painful headaches** that occur in clusters, often affecting one side of the head.
## Footnote
He experienced *cluster headaches* that would wake him from sleep at night.
101
# Define:
Tension Headache
A **common type of headache** characterized by a dull, aching sensation and tightness or pressure across the forehead or back of the head and neck.
## Footnote
After a stressful week, she developed a *tension headache* that lasted for days.
102
# Define:
Neuralgia
**Intense, typically intermittent pain along the course of a nerve**, often caused by irritation or damage to the nerve.
## Footnote
She was prescribed medication to manage her *neuralgia* after the surgery.
103
# Define:
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
A condition caused by **compression of the median nerve** as it travels through the wrist, leading to pain, numbness, and tingling in the hand and arm.
## Footnote
After years of typing, he developed *carpal tunnel syndrome* and needed surgery.
104
# Define:
Sciatica
Pain that radiates along the **path of the sciatic nerve**, which runs down one or both legs, typically caused by a herniated disk or bone spur.
## Footnote
She felt a sharp pain in her leg due to *sciatica* after lifting a heavy object.
105
# Define:
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
A test that measures **electrical activity in the brain**, often used to diagnose conditions such as epilepsy and sleep disorders.
## Footnote
The neurologist ordered an *electroencephalogram (EEG)* to evaluate her seizures.
106
# Define:
Computed Tomography (CT) Scan
A medical imaging technique that **uses X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of the body**, often used to detect injuries or abnormalities.
## Footnote
The emergency room performed a *computed tomography (CT) scan* to check for internal bleeding.
107
# Define:
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
A medical imaging technique that uses **strong magnets and radio waves** to create detailed images of organs and tissues in the body.
## Footnote
She underwent an *MRI* to assess her brain for any abnormalities.
108
# Define:
Functional MRI (fMRI)
A type of MRI that **measures and maps brain activity** by detecting changes in blood flow.
## Footnote
Researchers used *functional MRI (fMRI)* to study brain activity during cognitive tasks.
109
# Define:
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan
An imaging test that helps reveal **how your tissues and organs are functioning** by using a radioactive substance and a special camera.
## Footnote
The oncologist recommended a *positron emission tomography (PET) scan* to evaluate cancer spread.
110
# Define:
Lumbar Puncture (Spinal Tap)
A medical procedure in which a **needle is inserted into the lower back to collect cerebrospinal fluid** for diagnostic testing.
## Footnote
The doctor performed a *lumbar puncture (spinal tap)* to test for meningitis.
111
# Define:
Nerve Conduction Study (NCS)
A test that measures the **speed and strength of signals traveling in the nerves**, often used to diagnose nerve damage or dysfunction.
## Footnote
The neurologist ordered a *nerve conduction study (NCS)* to assess her symptoms.
112
# Define:
Electromyography (EMG)
A diagnostic procedure that **assesses the health of muscles and the nerve cells** that control them by measuring electrical activity.
## Footnote
He underwent an *electromyography (EMG)* to investigate his muscle weakness.
113
# Define:
Evoked Potentials
Tests that measure the **electrical activity in the brain** in response to stimuli, used to assess the function of sensory pathways.
## Footnote
The neurologist conducted *evoked potentials* to check for nerve pathway issues.
114
# Define:
Cerebral Angiography
An imaging technique used to **visualize the blood vessels in the brain** by injecting a contrast dye and taking X-rays.
## Footnote
The procedure known as *cerebral angiography* revealed a blockage in the artery.
115
# Define:
Myelography
A diagnostic imaging procedure that uses **X-rays or CT scans to visualize the spinal cord and nerve roots** after injecting contrast dye into the spinal canal.
## Footnote
*Myelography* was performed to investigate her back pain and nerve compression.
116
# Define:
Neuropsychological Testing
A comprehensive evaluation of **cognitive, behavioral, and emotional functioning**, often used to diagnose brain disorders.
## Footnote
The psychologist conducted *neuropsychological testing* to assess her cognitive abilities.
117
# Define:
Anticonvulsant
A type of medication used to prevent or treat seizures and epilepsy by **stabilizing electrical activity in the brain**.
## Footnote
He was prescribed an *anticonvulsant* to control his seizure episodes.
118
# Define:
Antiepileptic Drug
Medications used to treat epilepsy and prevent seizures by **altering the electrical activity in the brain**.
## Footnote
She takes an *antiepileptic drug* daily to manage her condition.
119
# Define:
Levodopa
A medication commonly used to **treat Parkinson's disease** by replenishing dopamine levels in the brain.
## Footnote
His doctor increased the dose of *levodopa* to improve his movement symptoms.
120
# Define:
Dopamine Agonist
A class of medications that **mimic the action of dopamine in the brain**, often used to treat Parkinson's disease and other movement disorders.
## Footnote
The neurologist recommended a *dopamine agonist* to help manage his symptoms.
121
# Define:
Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitor
A type of medication that **inhibits the enzyme acetylcholinesterase**, increasing levels of acetylcholine in the brain, commonly used in Alzheimer's disease treatment.
## Footnote
The patient was prescribed an *acetylcholinesterase inhibitor* to help with memory loss.
122
# Define:
Anticholinergic
Medications that **block the action of acetylcholine**, often used to treat various conditions including overactive bladder and muscle spasms.
## Footnote
He was advised to avoid *anticholinergics* due to their side effects on memory.
123
# Define:
Beta Blocker
A class of medications that **reduce blood pressure and heart rate** by blocking the effects of adrenaline on beta receptors.
## Footnote
The doctor prescribed a *beta blocker* to help manage her hypertension.
124
# Define:
Benzodiazepine
A type of medication that acts as a **central nervous system depressant**, commonly used to treat anxiety, insomnia, and seizures.
## Footnote
He was given a *benzodiazepine* to help alleviate his anxiety before the procedure.
125
# Define:
Corticosteroid
A **class of steroid hormones** produced in the adrenal cortex or synthetically made, often used to reduce inflammation and suppress the immune system.
## Footnote
The patient received a *corticosteroid* injection to reduce swelling in her joints.
126
# Define:
Neuroleptic
A type of medication used to **treat psychosis and other mental health disorders** by affecting neurotransmitter pathways in the brain.
## Footnote
He was prescribed a *neuroleptic* to help manage his schizophrenia symptoms.
127
# Define:
Thrombolytic Therapy
A treatment that **dissolves blood clots**, often used in emergencies such as heart attacks or strokes to restore blood flow.
## Footnote
*Thrombolytic therapy* was administered immediately after her stroke was diagnosed.
128
# Define:
Tissue Plasminogen Activator (tPA)
A medication used in **thrombolytic therapy** to break down blood clots in conditions like ischemic stroke.
## Footnote
She received *tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)* within the critical window after her stroke.
129
# Define:
Antiplatelet
Medications that **prevent blood cells** called platelets from sticking together and forming a clot, often used to reduce the risk of heart attack or stroke.
## Footnote
He was advised to take an *antiplatelet* to reduce his risk of cardiovascular events.
130
# Define:
Anticoagulant
A class of drugs that helps **prevent blood clots** from forming or growing larger, often prescribed for patients with certain heart and blood vessel conditions.
## Footnote
She was prescribed an *anticoagulant* to prevent deep vein thrombosis.
131
# Define:
Immunomodulator
A substance that helps **regulate or normalize the immune system's response**, often used in the treatment of autoimmune diseases.
## Footnote
He was started on an *immunomodulator* to manage his autoimmune disorder.
132
# Define:
Plasmapheresis
A medical procedure that involves **filtering the blood** to remove harmful antibodies or toxins, often used in autoimmune conditions.
## Footnote
*Plasmapheresis* was performed to help manage her severe autoimmune symptoms.
133
# Define:
Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)
A surgical procedure that involves **implanting a device that sends electrical impulses to specific brain areas**, used to treat movement disorders like Parkinson's disease.
## Footnote
He underwent *deep brain stimulation (DBS)* to alleviate his tremors.
134
# Define:
Vagus Nerve Stimulation
A therapy that involves **delivering electrical impulses to the vagus nerve** to treat conditions such as epilepsy and depression.
## Footnote
*Vagus nerve stimulation* helped reduce the frequency of her seizures.
135
# Define:
Craniotomy
A surgical procedure that involves **removing a portion of the skull to access the brain** for treatment of various conditions such as tumors or bleeding.
## Footnote
The neurosurgeon performed a *craniotomy* to remove the brain tumor.
136
# Define:
Laminectomy
A surgical procedure that involves **removing a portion of the vertebra** called the lamina to relieve pressure on the spinal cord or nerves.
## Footnote
He underwent a *laminectomy* to alleviate his spinal stenosis symptoms.
137
# Define:
Stereotactic Surgery
A minimally invasive surgical technique that uses a **three-dimensional coordinate system** to locate small targets inside the body, often used in brain surgeries.
## Footnote
*Stereoactic surgery* was utilized to precisely target the tumor in her brain.
138
# Define:
Shunt Placement
A surgical procedure to **insert a device that helps drain excess fluid** from one area of the body to another, commonly used in cases of hydrocephalus.
## Footnote
The child required *shunt placement* to manage his hydrocephalus.
139
# Define:
Aphasia
A language disorder that affects a **person's ability to communicate**, often resulting from brain damage due to a stroke or injury.
## Footnote
After the stroke, he struggled with *aphasia* and had difficulty finding words.
140
# Define:
Dysphasia
A partial loss of the ability to communicate, which can affect **speech and comprehension**, often due to brain damage.
## Footnote
The patient exhibited *dysphasia* and could not form complete sentences.
141
# Define:
Dysarthria
A motor speech disorder resulting from **neurological injury that affects the physical production of speech**, leading to slurred or slow speech.
## Footnote
His *dysarthria* made it difficult for others to understand him.
142
# Define:
Ataxia
A neurological sign consisting of **lack of voluntary coordination of muscle movements**, leading to unsteady gait and difficulty with balance.
## Footnote
The patient displayed *ataxia*, making it hard for him to walk steadily.
143
# Define:
Paresis
A condition characterized by **partial loss of voluntary movement** or weakness in a muscle or group of muscles.
## Footnote
He experienced *paresis* in his right arm after the stroke.
144
# Define:
Paralysis
**Loss of the ability to move one or more muscles**, often resulting from injury or disease affecting the nervous system.
## Footnote
*Paralysis* of her legs made it necessary for her to use a wheelchair.
145
# Define:
Hemiparesis
**Weakness on one side of the body**, often resulting from a stroke or other neurological condition.
## Footnote
He was diagnosed with *hemiparesis* after his stroke impacted his right side.
146
# Define:
Hemiplegia
**Complete paralysis of one side of the body**, typically resulting from a stroke or brain injury.
## Footnote
*Hemiplegia* left her unable to move her left arm and leg after the accident.
147
# Define:
Paraplegia
**Paralysis of the lower half of the body**, typically affecting both legs, often due to spinal cord injury or disease.
## Footnote
He faced *paraplegia* following the car accident that damaged his spine.
148
# Define:
Quadriplegia
**Paralysis that affects all four limbs**, usually resulting from severe spinal cord injury or disease.
## Footnote
After the fall, she was diagnosed with *quadriplegia* and required extensive rehabilitation.
149
# Define:
Paresthesia
An **abnormal sensation in the skin**, such as tingling, prickling, or numbness, often caused by nerve damage or compression.
## Footnote
He reported *paresthesia* in his fingers after sitting in one position for too long.
150
# Define:
Hypesthesia
**Reduced sensitivity to stimulation**, often resulting from nerve damage or neurological conditions.
## Footnote
The patient experienced *hypesthesia* in her feet, making it difficult to feel the ground.
151
# Define:
Hyperesthesia
**Increased sensitivity to sensory stimuli**, which can lead to discomfort or pain in response to normal sensations.
## Footnote
His *hyperesthesia* made even light touches feel painful.
152
# Define:
Nystagmus
**Involuntary eye movements** that can lead to reduced vision and depth perception, often associated with neurological conditions.
## Footnote
The neurologist noted *nystagmus* during the eye examination.
153
# Define:
Diplopia
The perception of two images of a single object, commonly known as **double vision**, often resulting from neurological or muscular disorders.
## Footnote
He complained of *diplopia* after the head injury.
154
# Define:
Anosmia
The **loss of the sense of smell**, which can occur due to nasal obstructions, neurological conditions, or head trauma.
## Footnote
Her *anosmia* made it difficult for her to enjoy food after the accident.
155
# Define:
Dysphagia
**Difficulty swallowing**, which can result from various medical conditions affecting the throat or esophagus.
## Footnote
He was evaluated for *dysphagia* after choking on food.
156
# Define:
Vertigo
A **sensation of spinning or dizziness**, often caused by problems in the inner ear or brain, affecting balance.
## Footnote
She experienced *vertigo* after standing up too quickly.
157
# Define:
Syncope
A temporary loss of consciousness and muscle strength, commonly known as **fainting**, often due to insufficient blood flow to the brain.
## Footnote
His *syncope* occurred while he was standing in line, leading to a fall.
158
# Define:
Tremor
**Involuntary, rhythmic muscle contractions** leading to shaking movements in one or more parts of the body, often associated with neurological disorders.
## Footnote
She noticed a *tremor* in her hands when trying to hold a cup.
159
# Define:
Bradykinesia
**Slowness of movement**, commonly seen in conditions like Parkinson's disease, affecting the ability to initiate and perform voluntary movements.
## Footnote
He exhibited *bradykinesia*, making his movements appear sluggish.
160
# Define:
Rigidity
**Increased muscle tone and stiffness**, often associated with neurological conditions such as Parkinson's disease, leading to reduced flexibility.
## Footnote
The examination revealed *rigidity* in her arms and legs.
161
# Define:
Spasticity
A condition characterized by **abnormal muscle tightness** due to prolonged muscle contraction, often seen in neurological disorders.
## Footnote
His *spasticity* made it difficult for him to move his legs freely.
162
# Define:
Clonus
A series of **involuntary muscle contractions and relaxations**, often occurring in response to sudden stretching of the muscle, commonly seen in neurological disorders.
## Footnote
The doctor observed *clonus* in his ankle during the neurological examination.
163
# Define:
Babinski Sign
A reflex action in which the **big toe extends upward** when the sole of the foot is stimulated, indicating neurological function and development.
## Footnote
The presence of a positive *Babinski sign* in adults can indicate neurological damage.
164
# Define:
Reflex (Deep Tendon Reflexes)
**Involuntary muscle contractions** in response to a stimulus, often tested to assess the integrity of the nervous system.
## Footnote
The doctor checked his *deep tendon reflexes* to evaluate neurological function.
165
# Define:
Gait Disturbance
A **change in the normal walking pattern**, which can result from neurological disorders, injuries, or other medical conditions.
## Footnote
She exhibited *gait disturbance* after her stroke, making walking difficult.
