ERGO M6 - M11 FINALS Flashcards
(272 cards)
1
Q
Is the system that is responsible for storing information for long periods of time.
A
LONG-TERM MEMORY
2
Q
LONG TERM MEMORY is described as the “________” of information about past events and knowledge learned.
A
Archive
3
Q
t and f
short term memory works closely with working memory.
A
false
Long term memory
4
Q
Long-term memory covers a span that
stretches from about ________ seconds ago to
your earliest memories.
A
30
5
Q
Beginning in the _____s, a great deal of research was conducted that was designed to
distinguish between short-term and long-term processes
A
1960s
6
Q
A classic experiment by _______ (person) (1962) studied the distinction between STM and LTM by measuring a function called the __________.
A
– B.B. Murdoch, Jr
– serial position curve.
7
Q
_____ is created by presenting a list of words to a participant, one after another. [Read stimulus list, write down all words remembered.]
A
Serial Position Curve
8
Q
The finding that participants are more likely to remember words presented at the beginning
of a sequence is called the ____.
A
primacy effect.
9
Q
True or False
Serial position curve (Murdoch, 1962).
Notice that memory is better for words
presented at the beginning of the list
(primacy effect) than at the end
(recency effect).
A
False
Change “Than” to “and”. Both sila have better memory
10
Q
What experiment ?
Participant begins recall
immediately after
hearing the list of words.
A
Serial position curve
(Murdoch, 1962)
Primacy effect and
recency effect.
11
Q
What experiment ?
List is presented and
participant repeats
words out loud in 5-
second intervals
between words.
A
Rundus’s (1971)
experiment
More info:
Words at the beginning
of the list are repeated
more, so they are more
likely to get into LTM.
12
Q
What experiment ?
Participant begins recall
after counting
backwards for 30
seconds.
A
Glanzer and Cunitz’s
(1966) experiment
Recency effect is
eliminated because
rehearsal is prevented.
13
Q
______ refers to the form in which stimuli are represented.
A
Coding
14
Q
What are the three Physiological Approaches in Coding?
A
Visual Coding
Auditory Coding
Semantic Coding
15
Q
A type of Physiological Approaches in Coding
- Remembered the pattern by representing it visually in your mind
▪ when you visualize a person or place from the past.
A
Visual Coding
16
Q
A type of Physiological Approaches in Coding
▪ people often misidentify target letters as another letter that sounds like the target
▪ occurs in LTM when you “play” a song in your head
A
Auditory Coding
17
Q
▪ Wickens and coworkers (1976)
▪ Interference enhanced by meanings of words
A
Semantic Coding
18
Q
_______ the DECREASE in memory that occurs when previously learned information interferes with learning new
information — by presenting words from the same category on a series of trials
A
proactive interference
19
Q
____ is the identification of a previously encountered stimulus
A
Recognition Memory
20
Q
What experiment?
Participants remember wording versus meaning
A
Sachs (1967) experiment:
21
Q
Determine whether this is STM OR LTM
Holding an image in the mind to
reproduce a visual pattern that
was just seen (Della Sala, et al.,
1999)
A
STM
22
Q
Determine whether this is STM OR LTM
Visualizing what the Lincoln
Memorial in Washington D.C.,
looked when you saw it last
summer
A
LTM
23
Q
Determine whether this is STM OR LTM
Representing the sounds of
letters in the mind just after
hearing them (Conrad, 1964)
A
STM
24
Q
Determine whether this is STM OR LTM
Repeating a song you have heard
many times before, over and over
in your mind.
A
LTM
25
Determine whether this is STM OR LTM
Placing words in a task into
categories based on their
meaning (Wickens et al., 1976)
STM
26
Determine whether this is STM OR LTM
Recalling the general plot of a
novel you read last week (Sachs
experiment)
LTM
27
According to ________
The ________: is a
- memory for experiences
▪ involves mental time travel
▪ tied to personal experience; remembering is reliving
▪ “Self-knowing”
-- Tulving (1985)
-- Episodic Memory
28
T OR F
Acquiring knowledge may start as episodic but then “fade” to semantic
T
28
According to ________
The ________: is a
-- memory for facts and information
▪ does not involve mental time travel
▪ General knowledge, facts
▪ “Knowing
-- Tulving (1985)
-- SEMANTIC MEMORY
29
T OR F
Semantic can be enhanced if associated with episodic
T
30
_______ ARE specific experiences, includes semantic and episodic
Autobiographical memory
31
____ are semantic memories that have personal significance
Personal semantic memory:
32
People’s memories for experiences
from their own lives. These memories
have both episodic components (relived
specific events) and semantic
components (facts related to these
events).
What type of memory
Authobiographical memory
33
t or f
Forgetting decreases with longer intervals after
encoding
f.
it increases
34
A type of longterm memory that occurs when learning from experience is not accompanied by conscious
remembering
Implicit memory
35
_______ is a type of implicit memory that you perform procedures without being consciously aware of how to do them
Procedural Memory
36
Presentation of priming stimulus changes person’s response to a test stimulus
Priming
37
more likely to rate statements read or heard before as being true
Propaganda Effect
38
Pairing a neutral stimulus with a reflexive response
Conditioning
39
GETTING INFORMATION INTO LONG-TERM MEMORY
____ is acquiring information and transforming it into memory
_____ is transferring information from LTM to working memory
_____ is REPITITION of stimuli that maintains information but does not transfer it to LTM
_____ is Using MEANINGS and connections to help transfers information to LTM
-- ECONDING
-- RETRIEVAL
-- MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL
-- ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL
40
Depth of processing
_______ IS:
▪ little attention to meaning
▪ focus on physical features
▪ poor memory
SHALLOW PROCESSING
Depth of processing
_______ IS:
▪ close attention to meaning
▪ better memory
ITO IS DEEP PROCESSING.
41
read only
OTHER FACTORS THAT AID ENCODING
▪ Visual imagery
▪ Self-reference effect
▪ Generation effect
▪ Organizing to-be-remembered information
▪ Relating words to survival value
▪ Retrieval practice
noted
42
______ is a:
- process of transferring information from LTM back into working memory (consciousness)
▪ Most of our failures of memory are failures to retrieve
Retrieval
43
_____ describes that we learn information together with its context.
STATE-DEPENDENT LEARNING
44
What experiment concluded the findings that:
Best recall occurred when encoding and retrieval occurred in the same location.
diving experiment
45
true or false
Better memory if person’s mood at encoding matches mood during retrieval.
true
46
______ describes that:
memory task results improve if the type of processing used during encoding is the same as the type during retrieval
Transfer-appropriate processing
47
Type of Consolidation:
______ rapid, occurs at synapses.
-- Learning and memory represented in the brain by physiological changes at the synapse.
Synaptic Consolidation
48
Type of Consolidation
______ : gradual, reorganization of neural circuits
Systems Consolidation
49
It Transforms new memories from fragile state to more permanent state
Consolidation
50
____: loss of memory for events prior to the trauma
Retrograde Amnesia
51
_____: memory for recent events is more fragile than for remote events
Graded Amnesia
52
True or false
Memory consolidation appears to be less enhanced during sleep (Gais and coworkers, 2006)
false. more enhanced
One reason: sleeping stops interference from environmental stimuli
53
_____: Retrieved memories become fragile and are consolidated again
Reconsolidation
54
True or False
Post traumatic stress disorder causes severe emotional responses to traumatic memories
True
55
______ associate what you are learning to what you already know
Elaborate
56
______: describes that Memory is better for multiple short study sessions
Spacing Effect
57
True or False
Familiarity mean comprehension
False.
Does not mean daw.
Avoid the “illusion of learning”
58
_____ is the Reaction of the organism to a threatening or oppressing situation
Stress
59
external cause of stress
Stressor
60
true or false
Long lasting or recurring stress situations can be detrimental to health (e.g. gastrointestinal and
cardiovascular functional troubles)
true
61
- The emotional state (or mood) which results from a discrepancy between the level of demand and
the person’s ability to cope.
▪ It is thus a subjective phenomenon and exists in people’s recognition of their ability to cope with the
demands of the work situation.
Occupational Stress
62
_____ Can become a negative emotional experience which may be associated with unpleasant feelings of
anxiety, tension, depression, anger, fatigue, lack of vigor and confusion.
Stress
63
Type of Stressors (Why do you get stressed)
lack of control may produce emotional and physiological stress
Job Control
64
Type of Stressors (Why do you get stressed)
lack of support increases load of stressors.
Social Support
65
Type of Stressors (Why do you get stressed)
perceived excessive stress in job and career, often leads to dissatisfaction.
Job Distress
66
Type of Stressors (Why do you get stressed)
workload, demand upon attention, deadlines may be major
stressors
Task and Performance Demand
67
Type of Stressors (Why do you get stressed)
recognition of availability of employment and future needs.
Job Security
68
Type of Stressors (Why do you get stressed)
seems that jobs with great responsibility are associated with an increased
proneness to peptic ulcers and high blood pressure
Responsibility
69
Type of Stressors (Why do you get stressed)
noise, poor lighting, unpleasant indoor and outdoor climate
and small, enclosed or crowded offices.
Physical Environment Problems
70
Type of Stressors (Why do you get stressed)
– repetitive and monotonous work – predicator of job dissatisfaction; too high can
arouse feelings of incompetence and may lead to emotional stress.
Complexity
71
Type of Stressors
Results from perceived threat of
harm or loss of self-esteem, of
something valued, or of bodily
function through injury or death
Psychological Stress
72
Perception of the situation wherein there
is less likely to experience stress if people
feel more in control of the situation
(Bowers, Weaver and Morgan, 1995)
COGNITIVE APPRAISAL
73
Type of stressors
▪ These are circumstances on the job and personal life.
▪ Poorer performance of those who are stressed by job related factors may be related to lack of
attention, resources and effort put into the job (low motivation)
▪ Greater hazards of some who suffer life event stress may be related to distraction or diversion of
inattention (Wine, 1971)
Life stress
74
True or False
there is no direct physiological measures of stress
true
but can be through Extensive questionnaire surveys on working conditions, potential stressors, workers’ health and well-being, job satisfaction and states of moods
75
Underuse of a person’s capabilities often lead to______ and _____
dissatistfaction and boredom
76
▪ If demands exceeds the individual’s capacity to cope, ‘_____’ develops
distress
77
_________ describes:
▪ Muscle performance declines as strain
increases (reduced power)
▪ Slower movement and reaction time
▪ Explains impaired coordination, errors
and accidents
Muscular Fatigue
78
______ describes the:
▪ General sensation of weariness, feeling of
inhibition and impaired activities.
▪ Weariness discourages us from overstraining
ourselves and allows time to recuperative
processes to take place (Kroemer, 1997)
General Fatigue
79
Other types of Fatigue
_______ – overstraining of the visual system.
_______ – physical overloading of the human body.
______ – mental or intellectual work
______ – overstressing one part of the psychomotor system.
______ – accumulated long term effects
______ – day-night rhythm, period of sleep
Eye Fatigue
General Bodily Fatigue
Mental Fatigue
Nervous Fatigue
Chronic Fatigue
Circadian Fatigue
80
Read only
Causes of fatigue = # and intensity of stressors
noted
81
Read only
SYMPTOMS OF FATIGUE
▪ Subjective feelings of weariness, somnolence, faintness and distaste for work.
▪ Sluggish thinking
▪ Reduced alertness
▪ Poor and slow perception
▪ Unwillingness to work
▪ Decline in both physical and mental performance
noted
82
What kind of fatigue
▪ Symptoms are latent almost all the time
▪ Increased psychic instability (quarrelsomeness and associated behavior)
▪ Fits of depression (baseless worries)
▪ General weakening of drive and unwillingness to work
▪ Increased likelihood of illness (psychosomatic disorders) – headaches, loss of sleep, irregular
heartbeat, sudden sweating, loss of appetite, digestive troubles (stomach pains)
▪ More ailments = more absence to work
▪ People with psychological problems and difficulties easily fall into a state of chronic fatigue and it is
often difficult to disentangle their mental from their physical problems.
▪ Cause and effect are difficult to distinguish
Chronic (Clinical) Fatigue
83
True or False
- To date, there is no way of directly
measuring the extent of the fatigue
itself.
▪ All experimental work has merely
measured certain manifestations or
‘indicators’ of fatigue.
True
but can be measured through
▪ Quality and quantity of work performed
▪ Recording of subjective perceptions of fatigue
▪ Electroencephalograph (EEG)
▪ Measuring frequency of flicker-fusion of eyes
▪ Psychomotor tests
▪ Mental tests
84
True or False
Measurement of physical factors must be backed up by subjective perceptions before it can be correctly assessed as indicating a state of fatigue.
t
85
True or false
Long periods of driving led to a increased ability to discriminate between sensory impressions and a increase in efficiency in some motor actions
false. decreased instead of increase
loss instrad of increase
86
_______ (how long) of continuous driving is enough to bring a distinct lowering of alertness and thereby
increase the risk of accidents
4 hours
Decline in vigilance is a symptom of fatigue state.
87
True or false
Tasks that demand sustained vigilance must be planned with working periods and rest periods so
that the risks of accidents is not increased through fatigue of the operators
True
88
Sleep loss leads to fatigue is also known as ____
▪ Sleep deprivation
89
even small amounts of sleep ( _________ hours per night) can be quite beneficial in sustaining performance throughout several days even though it will not come sustaining the
performance level of a well-rested individual.
3 to 4
90
Napping – _________ nap could significantly improve the level of performance of people after 54 hours
of sustained wakefulness. In general, a nap should be at least ________ to be effective (Naitoh,
1984)
2-hour
15 minutes
91
________ Trying to get extra sleep prior to a period of anticipated sleep deprivation
Sleep credits
92
organization’s responsibility to remedy sleepiness
Program of sleep management
93
Read only
Shift work strategies
- Assign workers permanently to different shifts
▪ Maintain continuous rotation of shifts – circadian
rhythms cannot catch up
▪ After shift periods infrequently
noted
94
▪ Measurable quantity of information processing demands placed on an individual by a task.
▪ In work settings, performance may suffer if workload is too high or too low.
Mental Workload
95
FACTORS AFFECTING MENTAL WORKLOAD
read only
▪ As the required accuracy levels increase.
▪ As time demands becomes stricter.
▪ As the number of tasks to be performed increases.
▪ When exposure to extreme heat or noise.
All of which increases mental workload
96
Type of MEASURES OF MENTAL WORKLOAD
▪ Directly examines the performance of the operator or the overall system.
▪ As task difficulty increases, performance would deteriorate when the workload requirement
exceeds the capacity of the available resource.
▪ Primary Task Measures
97
Type of MEASURES OF MENTAL WORKLOAD
▪ Workload is assessed by the degree to which performance deteriorates in the dual-task
situation relative to when each task is performed alone.
▪ Secondary Task Measures
98
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Why measure mental workload
▪ Assessment of mental workload can help determine tasks that can be performed simultaneously
with little or no decrement.
▪ Mental workload varies as a function of perceptual, cognitive and motor requirements imposed on
the operator.
▪ The structure of the task and the environment in which it is performed can significantly affect
workload and performance.
99
______ is the science of making
technology work for people.
Usability
100
4 components of UX
Usability
Usefulness
Emotional Impact
Meaningfulness
101
Goal of ____: To create ___ that is productive, fulfilling, satisfying, and even joyful
UX ; UX
102
IN UX, _____ describes:
Productivity, efficiency, ease of use, learnability
Usability
103
IN UX, _____ describes:
Ability to USE SYSTEM or product to accomplish goals of work.
Usefulness
104
IN UX, _____ describes:
Affective component of user experience and user feelings, user SATISFACTION.
EMOTIONAL IMPACT
105
IN UX, _____ describes:
Long-term personal relationship with product.
MEANINGFULNESS
106
3 COMPONENTS OF USABILITY
_____ How easy is it to use
the first time?
_____ How quickly can users
reach goals?
_____ How positive is the
experience?
LEARNABILITY
EFFICIENCY
SATISFACTION
107
Objective measures of Usability
Completion Time, Accuracy,
Number of Click, Number of
Scroll
108
Subjective Measures of Usability
Technology Acceptance Model
(TAM),
Theory of Planned
Behavior (TPB),
Unified Theory of
Acceptance and Use of
Technology (UTAUT2)
109
________ wrote a paper entitled “Perceived Usefulness, Perceived
Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information Technology” in 1989.
________ is the name of the model
Fred D. Davis
Technology Acceptance Model
110
The degree to which a person
believes that using a particular
system would enhance his or her
job performance.
Perceived usefulness (U):
111
The degree to which a person
believes that using a particular
system would be free of effort
Perceived Ease of Use
112
▪ A person’s behavioral intent is profoundly affected by the behavioral norms of his community.
▪ Exposition of the problem that was accomplished by intensive engagement with the various
communities, leading to stronger cultural norms
Theory of Planned Behavior
113
The ________ is one of the most important models in the field of technology adoption which has been developed by Venkatesh et al. (2003).
was applied to investigate the effects of performance and effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions, and hedonic motivation on the behavioral intention to use conditionally automated cars.
UTAUT2 model
Unified Theory of Acceptance and
Use of Technology
114
_____ Icons are typical pictorial representations of the object or action
_____ icons attempt to visualize a concept that is not far but separate
from the concrete image.
Image related
Concept Related
115
______ icons combine an image-related (representational) pictorial
element with an abstract (concept related or arbitrary) symbol
Semi Abstract
116
_____ icons have no obvious reference to their intended meaning, but become
meaningful only through convention and education
Arbitrary
117
These are experiences resulting from stimulation of the senses
PERCEPTION
118
TRUE OR FALSE:
Sensation can change based on added information
False. Perception instead of Sensation
119
True or False: Perceptions occur in conjunction with actions
True
120
True or False: Sensation is the top-down way our brain organize and interpret the information and put it into context.
False. Perception dapat.
121
True or False: Perception is the bottom-up process by which our senses, like vision, hearing and smell, receive and relay outside stimuli.
False: Sensation dapat
122
Perception involves complex, and usually invisible processes that resemble _________
Reasoning
123
Perception can be involved in a process similar to reasoning or problem solving, based on ________
a person’s past experiences
124
WHAT ARE 4 WAYS TO IMPROVE PERCEPTION
-- Authentic Communication
-- Empathy
-- Positive Attitude
-- Cultural Influences
125
WAYS TO IMPROVE PERCEPTION
_________ - Becomes very important as communication has to be proper and effective and needs to be understood by others in the way you wish it to be understood.
Authentic Communication
126
WAYS TO IMPROVE PERCEPTION
________ - it helps to understand the situation by keeping oneself in the shoes of others.
Empathy
127
WAYS TO IMPROVE PERCEPTION
keeping a __________ also helps in improving the perception. For example, consider an
employee who is not performing up to the expectations of the superiors and has since been a
consistent failure, however, by keeping a positive attitude, he/she can take effective control of situation, thus preventing one’s perception to
get distorted.
positive attitude
128
WAYS TO IMPROVE PERCEPTION
_______ - an individual’s upbringing to an extent guides one’s perception. Though it may be difficult for an
individual to change one’s perception, yet one should try to be flexible and accommodating enough to be able to shape up one's perception.
Cultural Influences
129
Types OF PERCEPTUAL ERRORS
▪ an individual is perceived based on a single trait.
▪ a single trait may cast its influence on all other traits
Halo Effect
Example: A person may have done some good work, some time ago which was highly appreciated by his boss. This deed by the individual might have touched the boss to such an extent that all other qualities, be it negative, get overshadowed by just one good deed of the individual. Such an error often finds its way in the performance appraisal exercise wherein the rater tends to rate an individual very high or very low based on a single trait, thus permitting a high degree of bias to creep into the appraisal.
130
Types OF PERCEPTUAL ERRORS
▪ may disrupt the perceptual process
▪ in its simplest sense would mean “typecast”
Stereotype
Example: A teacher may stereotype that ‘back benchers are laggards’ or a boss may typecast that ‘athletes make up good salesmen’. Such types of generalized statements may influence the interview process for instance and may bias the interview ratings.
131
What are 3 types OF PERCEPTUAL ERRORS?
-- Halo Effect
-- Stereotype
-- Projection
132
Types OF PERCEPTUAL ERRORS
▪ often creeps in due to incorrect perception of an individual
▪ seen during interviews that when the panelists are taking the interview of a candidate, it is very likely that one or more panelists may see their projection in the candidate or in other words their likes or dislikes may be the same as that of the candidate and hence their interview ratings could get biased
Projection
Example: While probing the personality of a candidate, the interviewer may ask about the hobbies of the candidate, to which the candidate may respond with an answer which conveys a set of hobbies that is like one or more of the panelist. In such a situation, the interviewer is likely to see his personality in the candidate which may compel him to skew the rating.
133
________ can be defined as a process wherein the individuals receive various stimuli, organize their
impressions, interpret in their own way, thereby giving some meaning to the environment.
perception
134
Perception Process
(Describe the Input)
It includes various _______ which are received, or an individual is _____ on a daily basis
-- stimuli
-- bombarded
135
Perception Process
(Describe the Throughput)
This stage essentially represents the processing stage wherein the stimuli are ___________ by an
individual and taken ahead in the system. These are organized and taken further ahead for _________.
-- selectively filtered
-- interpretation
136
Perception Process
(Describe the OUTPUT)
The output here pertains to
__________ displayed. This,
of course, could be _____ or _____ for an organization. Hence, the significance of perception from an organizational standpoint is very essential.
-- behavior
-- desirable
-- undesirable
137
_____ is one’s estimate of the probability of a given outcome is influenced by two factors.
▪ ________
▪ ________
-- BAYESIAN INFERENCE
-- The prior probability
-- The likelihood of a given outcome
138
_____ describes the way we perceive verticals and horizontals more easily than other orientations.
Oblique Effect
139
A GESTALT PRINCIPLE OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION describing similar things appear grouped together.
Principle of Similarity
140
A GESTALT PRINCIPLE OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION describing differently colored areas if the dress are perceptually grouped with the same colors in the scene.
Color Causes Grouping
141
A GESTALT PRINCIPLE OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION describing lines tend to be seen as following the smoothest path
Principle of Good Continuation
142
A GESTALT PRINCIPLE OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION describing:
▪ Principle of simplicity or good figure
▪ Every stimulus pattern is seen so the resulting
structure is as simple as possible.
Law of Pragnanz
143
Perceptual Organization:
▪ Old View – __________
▪ New View – _________
-- Structuralism
-- Gestalt Principles
144
_______ - perception involves adding up sensations. According to this, a number of _______ (represented by the dots), add up to create our perception of the face.
-- Structuralism
-- sensations
145
_______ - the mind groups patterns according to intrinsic laws of perceptual organization.
Gestalt Principles
146
▪ It is the central to our ability to organize the actions that occur as we interact with the environment.
▪ It creates a picture of our environment and helps us take action within it, as it plays a central role in our general cognition.
▪ It is essential for creating memories, acquiring knowledge, solving problems, communicating with
other people, recognizing someone you met last week, and answering questions on a cognitive ergonomics exam.
Perception
147
▪ ________ : Refers to the task of determining the object responsible for a particular image on the retina.
▪ Involves starting with the ________ and then extending ______(inward or outward) to the _____ of that image.
▪ Light from an object is _________ as it falls on the _____.
First bullet
-- Inverse Projection Problem
Second bullet:
-- retinal image
-- outward
-- source
Third bullet
-- Inverted
-- retina
148
t or f
People never identify objects that are obscured and therefore incomplete, or in some cases objects that are blurry.
FALSE: they can often identify blurred and obscured objects
149
Computer-vision systems can achieve _______ only by a laborious process that involves complex calculations designed to determine which points on an object match in
different views.
viewpoint invariance
150
▪ Scenes are more complex.
▪ Not only are there often many objects in a scene, but they may be providing information about the scene that requires some reasoning to figure out.
These results to scenes containing _______
High Level Information
151
The human perceptual system uses two types of information:
-- ______
-- _____
Knowledge and expectations
Environmental energy
152
One of the human perceptual system types of information:
_______ the observer brings to the situation.
Knowledge and expectations
153
One of the human perceptual system types of information:
______ stimulates the receptors.
Environmental energy
154
APPROACHES TO UNDERSTAND PERCEPTION
________ refers to:
▪ Bottom-up Processing
▪ Perception comes from stimuli in the environment
▪ Parts are identified and put together, and then
recognition occurs
Direct Perception Theories
155
APPROACHES TO UNDERSTAND PERCEPTION
________ refers to:
▪ Top-down Processing
▪ People actively construct perceptions using
information based on expectations
▪ Constructive Perception Theories
156
▪ Perception may start with the senses
▪ Incoming raw data
▪ Energy registering on receptors
Bottom-up Processing
157
What type of processing
▪ Perception mat start with the brain
▪ Person’s knowledge, experience, and expectations
Top-down Processing
158
True or False:
Bottom-up processing influences our perception of language based on our individual experience with the language.
False: Top-down dapat
159
The ability to tell when one word ends and another begins
Speech segmentation
160
Knowing which sound will likely follow another in a word
Transitional probabilities
161
True or False:
▪ Some perceptions are the results of unconscious assumptions we make about the environment.
▪ We use our knowledge to inform our perceptions.
True
162
_________ - We perceive the world in a way that is “most likely” based on our past experience
Likelihood Principle
163
True or False:
This aspect happens in our everyday perception. While in motion, we shift our attention from one thing to another to perceive what is happening
T
164
The ability to FOCUS on specific stimuli or locations in our environment.
Attention
165
Type of Attention.
Attending to one thing while IGNORING others
Selective attention
166
Type of Attention.
Paying attention to MORE than one thing at a time
Divided attention
167
Type of Attention.
"
▪ We DO NOT attend to a large fraction of the information in the environment.
▪ We FILTER out some information and promote other information for further processing.
"
Selective Attention
168
In Selective Attention,
Attention filtering occurs in either: _________, or ________.
early in processing
later in processing
169
In Selective Attention,
Early selection model: AKA _____
170
In Selective Attention,
Intermediate selection model: AKA _______
Treisman’s Attenuation Model
171
In Selective Attention,
Late selection model: ______ (Who developed and What year ??)
MacKay (1973)
172
WHAT RESEARCH METHOD: ____
▪ One message is presented to the left ear and another to the right ear.
▪ The participant “shadows” one message to ensure he is attending to that message.
DICHOTIC LISTENING
Additional Notes:
Participants could not report the content of the message in unattended ear:
▪ Knew that there was a message
▪ Knew the gender of the speaker
However, unattended ear is being processed at some level:
▪ Cocktail party effect
▪ Change in gender is noticed
▪ Changed to a tone is noticed
173
_________ was designed to explain the results of an experiment done by Colin Cherry (1953), where Cherry studied attention using a technique called dichotic listening
Broadbent’s filter model
174
Cherry studied attention using a technique called _______, where _______ refers to presenting
different stimuli to the left AND right ears.
The participant’s task in this experiment is to focus on the message in one ear, called the ________, and to repeat
what he or she is hearing out loud
dichotic listening
dichotic
attended ear
di = AND
175
In BROADBENT’S FILTER MODEL
This procedure of repeating the words as they are heard is called _________
Shadowing
176
_____________
▪ Filters message BEFORE incoming information is analyzed for meaning.
Early selection model or
BROADBENT’S FILTER MODEL
177
n BROADBENT’S FILTER MODEL, _______________
- Holds all incoming information
for a fraction of a second
▪ Transfers all information to next
stage
BONUS: __nth step of the model
Sensory memory
1st
(SFDM)
178
In BROADBENT’S FILTER MODEL, _______________
▪ Identifies attended message
based on physical
characteristics
▪ ONLY attended message is
passed on the next stage
BONUS: __nth step of the model
FILTER
2nd
(SFDM)
179
In BROADBENT’S FILTER MODEL, _______________
Processes all information to
determine high-level
characteristics of the message
BONUS: __nth step of the model
Detector
3rd
(SFDM)
180
In BROADBENT’S FILTER MODEL, _______________
▪ Receives output of detector
▪ Holds information for _________
seconds and may transfer it to
long-term memory
BONUS: __nth step of the model
Short-term memory
10 to 15 seconds
4th
(SFDM)
181
LIMITATIONS OF BROADBENT’S FILTER MODEL
Why participant’s name gets through:
▪ _________ phenomenon
Cocktail party
182
True or False
BROADBENT’S FILTER MODEL is not limited to answer the question "why participant’s can shadow meaningful messages that switch from one ear to another"
False. The question is considered a limitation as it contradicts the model.. diba?
-- Dear Aunt Jane
183
_____________ describes:
- Attended message can be SEPARATED from unattended message early in the information-
processing system.
▪ Selection can also occur later
Intermediate selection model
OR
TREISMAN’S ATTENUATION MODEL
184
In a TREISMAN’S ATTENUATION MODEL
__________ analyzes incoming message in terms of physical
characteristics, language, and meaning.
▪ Attended message is let through at full strength.
▪ Unattended message is let through at much weaker strength.
BONUS: __nth step of the model
Attenuator
1st
(AD)
185
True or False
Attenuator.
Unattended message is let through at full strength.
False. At weak strength
If attended messages, then at full strength
186
In a TREISMAN’S ATTENUATION MODEL
_________
▪ Contains WORDS, each of which has a threshold for being
activated.
▪ WORDS that are common or important have low thresholds
▪ Uncommon WORDS have high thresholds
Dictionary Unit
187
True or False
Dictionary Unit.
WORDS that are common or important have low thresholds
True.
So uncommon words means high thresholds
188
Read only
The dictionary unit of Treisman’s attenuation model of
selective attention contains words, each of which has a
threshold for being detected. This graph shows the
thresholds that might exist for three words.
The person’s NAME has a low threshold, so it will be easily detected.
The thresholds for the words rutabaga and boat are higher,
because they are used less or are LESS important to this
particular listener.
So unimportant is high threshold. less detected
189
_____________
- Selection of stimuli for final processing does not occur until after information has been analyzed for meaning
▪ Meaning of the biasing word affected participants’ choice.
▪ Participants were unaware of the presentation of the biasing words.
______ person involved or nakadiscover siguro
-- LATE SELECTION MODELS
-- MacKay (1973)
Scenario (read only)
In attended ear, participants heard ambiguous sentences.
▪ “They were throwing stones at the bank.”
In the unattended ear, participants head either detected “river” or “money”
190
When people try to ignore distracting stimuli when they focus their attention on a certain task, they consider two factors, Processing capacity and Perceptual load.
What theory is this?
LOAD THEORY OF ATTENTION
191
Under LOAD THEORY OF ATTENTION
____ is the AMOUNT of information people can handle and sets a limit on their ability to process
incoming information
Processing capacity
192
Under LOAD THEORY OF ATTENTION
____ is the difficulty of a task
Perceptual load
193
True or flas
▪ High-load (difficult) tasks use higher amounts of processing capacity
▪ Low-load (easy) tasks use lower amounts of processing capacity
tru
194
True or False
The load theory of attention:
(a) LOW-load tasks that use FEW cognitive resources may leave resources "unavailable" for processing unattended task-irrelevant stimuli
False.
"AVAILABLE"
if madali idetect, mas available madetetect irrelevant stimuli
195
True or False
high-load tasks that use all of a
person’s cognitive resources "leave" any resources to process
unattended task irrelevant stimuli.
False.
Dont Leave
196
_____________
▪ Name of the word interferes with the ability to name the ink color.
▪ Cannot avoid paying attention to the meanings of the words
Stroop Effect
197
true or false
reading is an automatic process
True
198
___ describes Eye movements, attention, and perception.
Studies by using an eye tracker
199
_____: rapid movements of the eyes from one place to another.
Saccades
200
____: short pauses on points of interest
Fixations
201
______: areas that stand out and capture attention.
▪ Example: color and motion
Stimulus Salience
202
____: knowledge about what is contained in typical scenes
▪ Example: guided fixations from one area of a scene to another
Scene schema
203
____: directing attention without moving the eyes
▪ Example: when participants respond faster to a light at an expected location than at an unexpected location
Precueing:
203
__ and ____ discovered:
Divide attention between remembering target and monitoring rapidly presented stimuli
Schneider and Shiffrin (1977)
204
True or false
Practice enables people to simultaneously do two things that were difficult at first.
true
205
________ occurs without intention and only uses some of a person’s cognitive
resources.
Automatic processing
205
______: could contain random dot patterns, a target, and distractors.
Test frames
206
________: one to four characters called target stimuli.
Memory Set
207
What Study
- Video recorders placed in cars
▪ Accident risk is 4x higher when using a cellphone
100-car Naturalistic Driving Study
208
True or false
▪ Accident risk is 6x higher when using a cellphone
false.
4x higher lang
209
True or false
Participants on phone missed three times as many red lights
and took longer to apply the brakes.
Same result using “hands-free” cell phone.
false. twice lang
210
Stimulus that is not attended is not perceived, even though a person might be looking directly at
it.
Inattentional Blindness
di mo napansin merong something pala
211
What are these 2 types of OBJECT BASED VISUAL ATTENTION.
____. Moving attention from one PLACE to another.
____. Attention being directed to one place on an object
Location based
Objected Based
211
Attention can be based on the:
▪ ________. Static scenes or scenes with few objects
▪ ________. Dynamic event
Environment
Specific Objects
211
___________ describes the ff:
- If shown two versions of a picture, differences between them are not immediately apparent.
▪ Task to identify differences requires concentrated attention and search.
Change Blindness
di mo napansin may nagbago pala, unless w/ full concentration
211
The process by which features such as color, form, motion, and location are combined to create
our perception of a coherent object.
Binding
211
that attention must be directed serially to each stimulus in a display whenever CONJUCTIONS of more than one separable feature are needed to characterize or distinguish the possible objects presented. (FROM GOOGLE)
also addresses Balint’s syndrome
FEATURE INTEGRATION THEORY
211
____ describes
▪ Inability to focus attention on individual objects.
▪ High number of illusory conjunctions were reported.
Balint’s syndrome
211
what are 4 other models of attention
▪ __________. Monitoring several sources of information to determine occurrence of a particular event.
▪ _________ Attending to ONE source of information and exclude other sources.
▪ _________. Two or more SEPARATE tasks are performed simultaneously.
▪ _________. Attention over PROLONGED periods.
Selective Attention
Focused Attention
Divided Attention
Sustained Attention
211
t or f
▪ Attentional processing is distributed across only a few number of areas in the brain
false.
across large numbers
212
True or False
▪ Attention enhances neural responding.
true
212
What are the 2 stages of FEATURE INTEGRATION THEORY
then ano itsura ng model
Object > Preattentive stage > Focus attention stage > Perception
213
Can hold a large amount of
information for years of even
decades
Long term of memry
214
___ is the processes involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images,
events, ideas, and skills after the original information is no longer present
Memory
215
______. is the initial stage that holds all incoming information for seconds or fractions of a second.
Sensory Memory
215
Active anytime some past experience has an impact on how you think or behave now or in the
future
memory
215
Modal Model of Memory was developed by ____ and ____
Atkinson and Shiffrin
model ish:
Input> Sensory Memory > STM >< LTM
output from STM
216
Short term memory Holds five to seven items for about
____ seconds.
15 to 20
217
___: retention of the perception of light
▪ Trail of light from a moving sparkler
▪ Frames in film
Persistence of vision
218
It is the retention, for brief periods of time, of the effects of the sensory stimulation.
▪ Information decays very quickly
Sensory Memory
218
_____ are active processes
that can be controlled by the person
through:
▪ Rehearsal
▪ Strategies used to make a stimulus more memorable
▪ Strategies of attention that help you focus on specific stimuli
Control Processes
219
What experiment and what year
Measuring the capacity and duration of sensory memory
▪ Array of letters flashed quickly on a screen
▪ Participants are asked to report as many as possible
(Sperling's Experiment, 1960)
Adtl info:
▪ Whole report method: participants asked to report as many as could be seen
▪ Average of 4.5 out of 12 letters (37.50%)
▪ Partial report method: participants heard tone that told them which row of letters to report
▪ Average of 3.3 out of 4 letters (82%)
▪ Participants could report any of the rows
▪ Delayed partial report method: presentation of tone delayed for a fraction of a second after the
letters were extinguished.
▪ Performance decreases rapidly
220
IN Sperling's experiment
The decrease in performance
is due to the ____ of iconic memory (sensory memory in the modal model)
rapid decay
221
___: Brief sensory memory of the things that we SEE (visual system – for seconds)
Iconic Memory
222
Brief sensory memory of the things that we HEAR (auditory system – about 1 second
Echoic Memory
223
True or false
Sensory memory is not Relatively automatic
false
little can be done to increase the length of sensory representation.
224
To retain the information gained from Sensory Memory for a longer period, it must be transferred to _______
short term memory.
225
T or f
Sensory memory require attention for the attention to be maintained
false. does not
226
_____ Includes both new information received from the sensory stores and information recalled from long- term memory.
Reduction in performance explained by decay, the vanishing of a memory trace due to the passage of time and exposure to competing stimuli
Short term memory
227
What are the 3 types of codes under memory
Visual
Phoetic
Semantic (meaning)
228
____ procedure used to measure the capacity of short-term memory
Change detection
229
in terms of SHORT-TERM MEMORY
_____ - small units can be combined into larger meaningful units
Chunking
229
Short term memory capacity is
7+/ -2 chunks of information
or 5 to 9
230
in terms of SHORT-TERM MEMORY
____ - UNIT of the working memory space, defined jointly by the physical and cognitive properties that bind items within the chunk together.
chunk
231
True or false
chunk is a collection of elements weakly associated with one another but strongly associated with elements in other chunks
false
strongly muna bago weakly
232
5 limits of short term mem
- change detection
- capacity
- time
- Confusability and Similarity
- attention and Similarity
232
___ describes Limited-capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks
such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning
Working memory
233
t or f
Working memory differs from short-term memory (STM
t
233
Strength of information decays over time unless it is periodically reactivated or “pulsed” (Cowan, 2001), a process called ________
maintenance rehearsal
233
____ is concerned with the storage, processing and manipulation of information, and is active
during complex cognition
working memory
233
In Baddeley's working memory model
____ is the visual and spatial information
visuospatial sketch pad
234
In PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
_____ Has a limited capacity and holds information only a few seconds
Phonological Store
234
In Baddeley's working memory model
______ is the verbal and auditory information
PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
235
In PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
___ is responsible for rehearsal that can keep items in the phonological store from decaying.
Articulatory Rehearsal Process
236
_________ is an example of the operation
of the visuospatial sketch pad because it
involves visual rotation through space.
______ and _____ describes this phenomena
mental rotation
Shepard and Metzler
236
▪ Is where the major work of working memory occurs because it is the control center of the working
memory system.
▪ It pulls information from long-term memory and coordinates the activity of the phonological
loop and visuospatial sketch pad by focusing on specific parts of a task and deciding how
to divide attention between different tasks.
▪ Controls suppression of irrelevant information
CENTRAL EXECUTIVE
237
what are the three Phenomena Supporting Phonological Loop
__________
- Letters or words that sound similar are confused
_________
▪ Memory for lists of words is better for short words than for long words
▪ Takes longer to rehearse long words and to produce them during recall
__________
▪ Speaking prevents one from rehearsing items to be remembered
▪ Reduces memory span
▪ Eliminates word length effect
▪ Reduces phonological similarity effect for reading words
▪ Phonological similarity effect
▪ Word length effect
▪ Articulatory suppression
238
the creation of visual images in the mind in the absence of a physical visual stimulus.
Visual imagery
239
Its mission is not to store information but to coordinate how information is used by the phonological
loop and visuospatial sketch pad
CENTRAL EXECUTIVE
240
it determines how attention is focused on a specific task, how it is divided between two tasks,
and how it is switched between tasks
attention controller
241
working memory model is made by
baddeley
242
The central executive is therefore related to _________, and it is essential in situations such as when a person is attempting to simultaneously drive and use a cell phone
executive attention
243
N terms of central executive
____ means repeatedly performing the same action or thought even if it is not achieving the
desired goal
Perseveration
244
read only.
may taga basa ng directions habang nagddrive ka
▪ Your phonological loop is taking in the verbal directions.
▪ Your visuospatial sketch pad is helping you
visualize a map of the streets leading to the restaurant.
▪ Your central executive is coordinating and combining these two kinds of information.
noted
245
______
▪ Backup store that communicates with long-term and working memory components.
▪ Hold information longer and has greater capacity than phonological loop or visuospatial sketch pad.
EPISODIC BUFFER
246
____ is responsible for processing incoming visual and auditory information.
Prefrontal cortex
247
T and F
Information is stored in short-term changes in neural networks
T
Stokes (2015)
248
true or false
not only that a number of areas are associated with working
memory, but that they communicate with each
other
t
Ericsson et al. (2015)
249
Activity-silent working memory:
▪ ________: information to be remembered causes neurons to fire
Activity state
250
Activity-silent working memory:
▪ ________: neuron firing stops, but connections between neurons are strengthened
Synaptic state
251
reminder. memorize all models / flowcharts
k
