Exam Flashcards
(305 cards)
1
Q
Three elements of a scientific attitude
A
Curiosity, skepticism, humility
2
Q
Hindsight Bias
A
I-Knew-It-All-Along Phenomenon
3
Q
Overconfidence
A
Drives us to quick rather than correct thinking
4
Q
Theory
A
Explain behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize observations
5
Q
Hypothesis
A
Testable prediction, often implied by a theory
6
Q
Falsifiable
A
The possibility that your hypothesis could be incorrect
7
Q
Operational definition
A
Carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study
EX. Human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures
8
Q
Case study
A
In-depth analysis of an individual or small group
Drawback: what’s true of one, isn’t always true of a whole
9
Q
Naturalistic Observation
A
Recording the natural behavior of individuals
Drawback: Does so without controlling for all the factors that may influence behavior
10
Q
Survey
A
Asking people questions
Drawback: Wording effects such as social desirability bias and self-report bias
11
Q
Social desirability bias
A
Answers they think will please others
12
Q
Self-report bias
A
When people don’t accurately report behaviors
13
Q
Sampling bias
A
To generalize from a few vivid unrepresentative cases
14
Q
Convenience sampling
A
Easy to access people over others
15
Q
Random sample
A
Represent everyone EX. Student body
16
Q
Population
A
All those in a group being studied - random samples
17
Q
Correlation
A
A connection between two different things and how well they predict each other
18
Q
Variable
A
Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure
19
Q
Positive correlation
A
When two variables rise and fall together
20
Q
Negative correlation
A
When two variables rise and fall differently
21
Q
Correlation does not equal causation
A
Not everything that correlates effects/causes another to occur
22
Q
Illusory correlation
A
Finding a correlation where none exists
23
Q
Regression toward the mean
A
The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to regress toward the average
24
Q
Experimental group
A
Group exposed to treatment
25
Control group
Group not exposed to treatment
26
Single blind
Ignorant participants
27
Double-blind
Both staff and participants are ignorant - Staff are able to hypothesize
28
Placebo effect
When something/someone seems to improve after taking a placebo/fake treatment
29
Independent variable
Factor that is manipulated
30
Dependent variable
Factor that may change when I.V is manipulated
31
Confounding variable
Another factor that may influence the result
32
Quantitative research
Relies on data and numbers
33
Qualitative research
Relies on narrative data
34
Ethical guidelines - animals
- Must provide humane care and healthful conditions
- Testing should minimize discomfort
35
Ethical guidelines - human
- Informed consent
- Protect from greater than-usual harm and discomfort
- Confidential
- Fully debrief
36
Mode
Most frequent
37
Mean
Average (add then divide)
38
Median
Middle score when in order
39
Percentile rank
Percentage of scores lower than a given score
40
Range
Difference between the highest and lowest scores
41
Standard deviation
Measure of how scores vary around the mean
42
Inferential statistics
Numerical data that allows generalization of the probability of something being true
43
Meta-analysis
Statistical procedure for analyzing results from multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion
44
Memory
Learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
45
Recall
Retrieving info that is not in your conscious awareness (Fill in the blank)
46
Recognition
Identifying items previously learned (Multiple choice)
47
Relearning
Learning something more quickly than before (Relearning a language)
48
Parallel processing
Processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously
49
3 part model of working memory
Sensory memory --> Working/short term memory --> Long term memory storage
50
Explicit memories
Memories we know, declare, and are conscious of
51
Implicit memories
Memories that happen without our awareness
52
Procedural memories
Unconscious memory of skills and how to do things
53
Classically conditioned associations
Linking two or more stimuli
54
Space
Visualize location when you want to
55
Time
Noting sequence of events - automatically encoded
56
Frequency
Keeping track of how many times something happens
57
Iconic memory
Sensory memory of visual stimuli
58
Echoic memory
Sensory memory of auditory stimuli
59
Capacity of short-term memory
7 pieces of information
60
Chunking
Organizing items into familiar units
61
Mnemonics
Memory aids using vivid imagery (PEMDAS)
62
Hierarchies
Divided groupings that organize information
63
Spacing effect
Distributed study rather than cramming
64
Testing effect
Repeatedly testing to put into long-term memory
65
Semantic memory
Facts and general knowledge
66
Episodic memory
Personally experienced events
67
Schemas
Frameworks we've learned to use to understand our world
68
Role of sleep in memory
During sleep, the HC processes memories for later retrieval
69
Flashbulb memories
Clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
70
Retrieval cue
Associating an object or word with something you need to remember
71
Retrospective memories
Long-term memory that refers to remembering past info
72
Prospective memories
Long-term memory that refers to remembering to carry out an action
73
Priming
Activation of particular associations in memory
74
State-dependent memory
Easily recalling memories when in a certain state
75
Primacy effect
Recalling info at the beginning of a list better than the rest
76
Recency effect
Recalling info at the end of a list better than the rest
77
Proactive interference
Disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information
78
Retroactive interference
Disrupitve effect if new learning on the recall of old information
79
Anterograde amnesia
Can't form new memories
80
Retrograde amnesia
Can't remember old memories
81
Nature Nurture
Question of whether human traits present at birth or through experience
82
Natural selection
Inherited traits that aid in survival will be passed down
83
Identical twins
One egg is fertilized and split in two - may share a placenta
84
Fraternal twins
Two eggs are fertilized at the same time
85
Nervous system
The body's quick communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the NS
86
Nerves
Bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with the muscles, glands, and sensory organs
87
Central NS
Brain and spinal cord
88
Peripheral NS
Neurons that connect the central NS to the rest of the body
89
Somatic NS
Division of the PNS that controls the skeletal muscles
90
Autonomic NS
Division of PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs
91
Sympathetic
Arouses
92
Parasympathetic
Calms
93
Sensory neurons
Carry incoming info from tissues and receptors to the brain and spinal cord
94
Motor neurons
Carry outgoing info from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
95
Dendrite
Neuron extensions that receive and integrate messages
96
Axon
Neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons
97
Myelin Sheath
Fatty tissue that encases axons enables greater transmission
98
Glial Cells
Support our nerve cells
99
Action potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
100
Excitatory
Increases the likelihood that a neuron will fire an AP
101
Inhibitory
Decreases the likelihood that a neuron will fire an AP
102
Refractory period
Neural processing; a brief pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; AP can not fire until axon is at rest
103
Synapse
Tiny gap where a neuron can send an impulse to another neuron
104
Endorphins
Pain
105
Agonists
Increase a neurotransmitter action
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Antagonists
Blocks a neurotransmitter production or release
107
Endocrine system
The slow chemical communication system
108
Adrenal gland
Regulate bodily functions; cortisol, adrenaline
109
Pituitary gland
Regulate bodily functions; thyroid, growth hormone
110
Psychoactive drugs
Alters your consciousness
111
Depressants
Reduce neural activity and slow bodily functions
Alcohol - CNS depressant, slows thinking, disinhibitor (making judgments)
Barbituates - Induce sleep, depress CNS activity, reduce anxiety
Opioids - Depress neural activity, temporarily lessen pain, produce feelings of euphoria
112
Stimulants
Excite neural activity and speed up bodily functions
Cocaine - Dependency is quick and severe, blocks reuptake
Methamphetamine -Stimulates neural activity, peed up bodily functions, irreversible changes in mood and function (reduces dopamine)
113
Hallucinogens
Drugs that distort perceptions and create sensory images
LSD - Effects vary, mimics and blocks reuptake of serotonin
Marijuana - Lower inhibitions, relaxation, and mild euphoria
Ecstasy - Lower inhibitions, pleasant feelings, greater acceptance of others, blocks serotonin reuptake
114
Neuroplasticity
Brain to form reorganized synaptic connections
115
Lesion
Destroying part of the brain and observing results
116
EEG
Shows electrical activity
117
MEG
Shows magnetic activity
118
CT
X-Ray of the brain
119
PET
Shows brain activity
120
MRI
Organs, bones, muscles
121
fMRI
Shows areas with the most blood flow
122
Hindbrain
medulla,pons,cerebelllum; essential survival functions
123
Midbrain
Atop brainstem; controls motor movement
124
Forebrain
cognitive, sensory, and motor activities
125
Medulla
Basic functions
126
Pons
Movement and sleep
127
Thalamus
Sensory
128
Reticular formation
arousal
129
Cerebellum
Voluntary movement and balance, skill learning and memory
130
Limbic system
Associated with emotions and drives
131
Amygdala
Aggression and fear
132
Hypothalamus
Maintenance activities, govern the endocrine system, emotion, reward, and internal environment
133
Hippocampus
Processes explicit memories - facts, events for storage
134
Frontal lobes
Language, muscle movements, higher-order thinking, plans and judgements
135
Parietal lobes
touch and body positions
136
Occipital lobes
visual
137
Temporal lobes
auditory - opposite ear, language processing
138
Association areas
Remembering, thinking, speaking
139
Prefrontal cortex
Judgment, planning, processing memories
140
Parietal lobes
sensory
141
Broca's area
Speech production
142
Functional connectivity
how parts of the brain interact
142
Wernicke's area
Meaningful speech
143
Neurogenesis
Formation of new neurons
144
Lateralization
Functions being specified to one side of the brain
145
Corpus callosum
Connectivity between two hemispheres
146
Sleep stage timing
90 minutes
147
Awake/falling asleep
Alpha waves - slow
148
Stage 1 NREM
Hallucination, hypnagogic sensations
149
Stage 2 NREM
Sleep spindles - bursts of sudden brain activity
150
Stage 3 NREM
Delta waves - deep sleep
151
REM
Vivid dreams, paradoxical sleep
152
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
Cell clusters in the hypothalamus that control circadian rhythm in response to light
153
Cortisol
Increased cortisol = increased fat
154
Narcolepsy
Uncontrolled sleep attacks
155
Sleep apnea
Stop breathing in sleep
156
Manifest content
remembered storyline
157
Latent content
Hidden psychological meaning
158
Bottom-up processing
Taking sensory info and then assembling it
159
Top-down processing
Expectations and prior experiences in interpreting sensory info
160
Transduction
Conversion of one form of energy to another
161
Psychophysics
Studies the relationship between physical energy and its effects on us
162
Signal detection theory
Predicts when we will detect weak signals
163
Subliminal
Below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
164
Priming
Used to activate conscious associations
165
Difference threshold
minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50%
166
Weber's law
To be perceived as different two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum %
167
Wavelength
Distance between crests of a wave
168
Hue
Color of light as determined by the wavelength of the light energy
169
Amplitude
The brightness of light as determined by the height of the wave
170
Intensity of color
Taller the wave:brighter the color
171
Cornea
Protects the eye and focuses light
172
Pupil
Hole in the center of the iris
173
Iris
Muscle tissues that dilate the pupil to let light in
174
Rods
Black, white, peripheral
175
Cones
Detailed color vision, only fire in light
176
Bipolar cells
Send messages to ganglion cells
177
Ganglion cells
Send messages to optic nerve
178
Blind spot
No rods or cones, top-down
179
Fovea
Point of central focus - cones
180
Trichromatic theory
S-cones: Blue light
M-cones: Green light
L-cones: Red light
181
Greater/smaller amplitude
Loud/quiet
182
High/low frequency
High/low-pitched
183
Eardrum
Sound waves strike causing vibration
184
Middle ear
Piston made of 3 tiny bones - picks up vibration and transmits to cochlea
185
Inner ear
vibrations to the innermost ear cause the cochlea's membrane-covered opening to vibrate
186
Cochlea
Fluid inside is jostled which causes ripples in the basilar membrane bending the hair cells . NERVE CELL-AUDITORY NEVRE-THALAMUS-AUDITORY CORTEX
187
Conduction hearing loss
Damage to the ME bones and eardrum
188
Sensorineural hearing loss
Damage to the cochlea's hair cell receptors of the auditory nerve
189
Frequency theory
Rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone = pitch
190
Place theory
Pitch we hear to where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
191
Nocioreceptors
Detect harmful temps, pressures, or chemicals
192
Tastes
Sweet - energy source
Salty - Sodium for physiological processes
Sour - Toxic acid
Bitter - Poison
Umami - Proteins
Oleogustus - Fats
193
Olfaction
Smell
194
Vestibular sense
Balance
195
Equilibrium
2 structures in your inner ear
196
Semicircular canals
Fluid-filled
197
Vestibular sense
calcium - crystal - filled
198
McGurk effect
Lip reading is a part of hearing
199
Synesthesia
Blended sensations
200
Perceptual set
Expecting something based on previous experience
201
Schemas
Through experience, we form schemas that organize unfamiliar info
202
Gestalt
Organized whole, integrate pieces of info into meaningful wholes EX. Necker cube
203
Proximity
Grouping nearby figures together
204
Similarity
Grouping similar objects together
205
Closure
Filling in gaps to create a whole
206
Retinal disparity
Comparing retinal images to test distance
206
Convergence
Combined retinal cues
206
Monocular cue
Depth cue
207
Apparent movement
As we move, stable objects appear to be moving
208
Stroboscopic movement
An illusion of continuous movement when still images rapidly move
209
Phi phenomenon
Illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off quickly
210
Autokinetic effect
-perception
Illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room
211
Cognition
Thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
212
Metacognition
Cognition about our cognition
213
Concept
Mental grouping of similar objects
214
Prototype
A mental image
215
Convergent
Narrowing possibilities
216
Divergent
Expanding possibilities
217
Functional fixedness
Mental set - not being able to see something as anything it's "not"
218
Algorithms
Problem-solving strategy that guarantees the solution to the problem
219
Heuristics
A rule-of-thumb simpler ps strategy
220
Insight
Sudden realization of the answer
221
Representative heuristic
Probability of an event based on a known situation
222
Availability heuristic
Mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples
223
Gambler's fallacy
If an event has occurred less frequently than expected, it is more likely to happen again in the future
224
Framing
Viewing two solutions as a gain or a loss due to bias despite same result
225
Generalized intelligence (g)
All mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
226
Factor analysis
Statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related variables
227
Fluid intelligence (Gf)
Ability to reason speedily and abstractly
228
Crystalized intelligence (Gc)
Accumulated knowledge as reflected in vocab and applied skills
229
CHC theory
Intelligence is based on g as well as specific abilities, bridged by gf and gc
230
Gardner's multiple intelligences
Describes different ways students learn and aquire info; IQ is too limited
231
Sternberg's three intelligences
Analytical, creative, practical - considers culture and environment
231
Achievement vs. aptitude
Reflect what you have learned vs. what you will be able to learn
232
Francis Galton
Western attempts to assess differences; founded eugenics
232
Collectivism vs. individualism
Collective welfare of the family, society vs. promoting individual opportunity
233
Alfred Binet
Child's mental age; minimize bias; assumed children follow the same course of intellectual development, but at different times
234
IQ equation
Mental age/chronological age=IQ
235
Wechsler intelligence scale
Similarities, vocab, block design, letter-number sequencing
235
Psychometrics
Measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
236
Standardization
Comparing scores with a basis from a pretested group
236
Reliability
Consistent results
237
Flynn effect
Rise in intelligence test over time
238
Validity
Accurate info gained from test
239
Content validity
test samples the behavior of intrest
240
Construct validity
how much a test measures a concept or trait
241
Predictive validity
Predicts the behavior it is designed to predict
242
Cross-sectional study
Compares people of different ages at the same point
243
Continuity and stages
Which parts are continuous and what parts change abruptly
243
Longitudinal study
Follow and retests the same people over years
244
Stability and change
When traits persist through life
245
Prenatal development 10 days after conception
Germinal stage occurs - zygote attaches to uterine wall, growing rapidly
245
Prenatal development start of 9th week
Fetal period begins; face, hands, and feet have formed
246
Prenatal development 6th month
Organs develop enough to give the fetus a chance of survival
247
Teratogens
Agents such as drugs and viruses that put infants at risks for low intelligence, behavior problems, disabilities and more
247
Newborn reflexes
Root, sucking, startle, grasping
247
Habituation
Interest waning due to overexposure
248
Maturation
orderly sequence of biological growth
249
Order of brain growth
Womb - forming nerve cells
Infant - branching neural networks grow
3-6 - Brain energy, frontal lobes, attention and behavior association areas were the last cortical areas to develop
250
Synaptic pruning
Brain eliminates excess neurons and synapses 2-10
250
Fine vs gross muscle skills
small muscles vs. large muscles
250
Critical periods
Lack of language or sight will lead to the brain using them for other things
251
Teen brain during adolescence
Unused neurons discarded, prefrontal cortex develops, myelin grows, hormonal surge and limbic system development
252
Gender vs. sex
Cultures influence vs. biological
253
Chromosomes
Mom - x, dad - y or x; x female y male
253
Primary and secondary sex characteristics
Primary - testes and ovaries
Secondary - pubic hair and breasts
254
Menarche
Period
255
Spermarche
Wet dream
256
Intersex
Both male and female biological characteristics
257
Gender role
social expectations that guide people's behavior as men or woman
258
Gender identity
Personal sense of being male, female, neither regardless of whether it matches our assigned sex
259
Gender typing
Acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
259
Social learning theory
Theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
260
Androgyny
Blending traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine psychological characteristics
261
Gender schemas
Organize incoming info according to gender categories and in turn lead people to perceive the world in terms of gender
262
Prenatal hormones
direct sexual development
263
Puberty hormones
Sex hormones surge ushers us into adolescence
264
Hormones after puberty
Sex hormones facilitate sexual behavior
265
Brain differences in gay
Cell cluster larger in straight men than gay; sexual orientation runs in family influenced by many geness
266
Deary's IQ study
Stability at age 11 becomes stable; scottish children
267
Heritability
Portion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes
268
Male intelligence
Spatial ability, complex math
268
Female intelligence
Language, emotional
269
Stereotype threat
Self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
270
Habituation
Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation
271
Classical conditioning
Learning that we link to two or more stimuli; the first stimulation comes to elicit behavior in anticipation of the second stimuli
272
Operant conditioning
Behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence
272
Operant behaviors
Operates on the environment, producing a response
273
Respondent behaviors
Occurs as an automatic response
274
Behaviorism
Objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes
275
NS
No response before conditioning
275
Advocation in Watson and Pavlov
Psychology should be an objective science - based on observable behavior
276
UCS
Naturally triggers an UCR
276
UCR
natural response
277
CR
learned response to a NS
278
CS
Triggers a CR after association with UCS
279
Acquisition
NS is lined with a UCS = triggers the CR
280
Extinction
Diminishing of a CR when a UCS does not follow a CS
281
Spontaneous recovery
Reappearance after a pause of a weakened conditioned response
282
Generalization
Tendency for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses
283
Discrimination
Ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that have not been associated with a CS
284
Counter conditioning
Behavior is modified through a new association with a stimulus of an opposite valence
285
Systematic Desensitization
Gradually exposing someone to an anxiety-producing thing while also performing relaxation techniques
286
Biological preparedness
Predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value
