Exam 2 Flashcards
(158 cards)
1
Q
Malignant
A
capable of metastasis
2
Q
tumor
A
a non-specific term meaning lump or swelling
3
Q
metastasis
A
discontinuous spread of malignant neoplasm
4
Q
neoplasm
A
uncontrolled growth of cells
5
Q
cancer
A
any malignant tumor/neoplasm
6
Q
carcinoma in situ (CIS)
A
- cancer in place
- has not through basement membrane yet
- if caught in this stage it can be cut out to cure it
7
Q
TNM system
A
- describes staging
- T: describes tumor (0-3)
- N: lymph nodes (0-2)
- M: metastasis (0-2)
8
Q
staging
A
describes extent of spreed
9
Q
Dysplasia
A
- premalignant state
- if it stays there it will become cancer
- doesn’t necessarily progress to malignancy
- usually occurs in the epithelium
10
Q
carcinogenesis
A
the creation of cancer
11
Q
cachexia
A
generalized wasting that occurs in terminal cancer
12
Q
grading of tumor
A
- shows how differentiated or undifferentiated cells are
- degree of differentiation roughly estimates tumors malignant potential
13
Q
CAUTION
A
- Changes in bowel/bladder habits or functions
- A sore that doesn’t heal
- Unusual bleeding or discharge
- Thickening or lump in breast or elsewhere
- Indigestion or difficulty swallowing
- Obvious changes in a wart or mole
- Nagging cough or horseness
14
Q
lifestyle choices that reduce risk of cancer
A
- don’t use tobacco
- sun safely
- diet (processed foods are carcinogens)
- drink alcohol moderately
- exercise regularly
- vaccinations (HPV)
- safe sex practices
- maintain a healthy weight
- self-examinations
15
Q
what is the most deadly cancer in adults?
A
lung cancer
16
Q
which cancer is the most common in women?
A
breast cancer
17
Q
which cancer is the most common in men?
A
prostate cancer
18
Q
proto-oncogene
A
a normal gene
19
Q
oncogene
A
- mutated proto-oncogene
- “green light”
20
Q
KRAS oncogene
A
- mutation of the RAS proto-oncogene
- mutated RAS leads to activation of protein which stimulates transcription
- mutation in RAS causes it to always be “on” making cells grow really fast
21
Q
tumor suppressor genes
A
- they detect and repair DNA damage before they can go through mitosis
- “red light”
22
Q
mutation of Tumor Suppressor p53
A
- mutation causes the levels of p53 to increase in a cell
- results in:
1. ) recruit in DNA repair
2. ) senescence
3. ) death by apoptosis
23
Q
what is the most mutated tumor suppressor gene?
A
p53
24
Q
what is the function of tumor suppressor gene p53
A
stops the cell cycle and usually found in low amount in cells
25
senescence
the cell is still alive but it will never divide again
26
how is cancer a multi-hit development?
in order for cancer to acquire a malignant phenotype it needs to have multiple mutations (hits) to genome
27
etiology of cancer
-cancer occurs due to mutations in DNA
28
what cells does cancer occur in
somatic or germ cells
29
why is cancer hard to treat?
each cancer is genetically unique, not everyone's is the same
30
manifestations of cancer
1. ) mass
2. ) hormone production
3. ) systemic manifestation
4. ) cachexia
31
paraneoplastic syndrome
manifestation of aberrant and uncontrolled hormone production by a malignant neoplasm
EX: lung cancer produces unregulated cortisol, so it can be misdiagnosed as Cushings syndrome
32
Surgery for treating cancer
- prevent cancer
- cure depending on localization
- biopsy for diagnosis
- debulking surgery
- palliative surgery: surgery to manage symptoms
33
hormone therapy for cancer treatment
- activation or blockage of a receptor
| - interferes with cellular growth and signaling
34
ionizing radiation for cancer treatment
-targets cells in S phase so mutated DNA can't divide
goals:
-eradicate cancer without excessive toxicity
-avoid damage to normal structure
35
chemotherapy for cancer treatment
- given via IV
- chemicals target ALL rapidly dividing cells (can't target only cancer dividing cells)
- puts a base analogue in DNA that won't work
36
symptoms of chemotherapy
- hair loss
- low white blood cell count, can get sick more often
- low red blood cell count, anemia
- loss of appetite
37
immunotherapy
- immune system sees mutant cell as foreign
- it then stimulates own immune system to better recognize cancer cells
- tumor antibodies
38
targeted therapy
- "precession medicine": acts on specific molecular targets
| - EX: HER2
39
mammography
screening for breast cancer recommenced at age 40
40
pap smear
screening for cervical cancer
41
colonoscopcy/fecal occulta test
screening for colon cancer recommened at age 50
42
what cancers are the most deadly?
cancers that don't have screening tests
43
congenital disease
a disease that you are born with
44
allele
variation form of a gene (EX: eye color)
45
Non-disjuction
DNA doesnt pull apart correctly in meiosis
46
Genetic disease
disease caused by abnormal DNA
47
Karyotype
illustration of chromosomes that is used to visualize them and look for abnormailites and alterations
48
Aneuploidy
when there is one or more extra or missing chromosomes which results in abnormal number
49
what are the main causes of developmental diseases?
1.) birth defects/congenital anomalies
50
how does a genetic disease develop?
- inherited by parents
| - can occur in gamete development
51
fetal alcohol syndrome causes and effects
- Cause: when mom consumes alcohol during pregnancy
| - effects: fetal growth restriction, CNS abnormalities, and distinctive facial features
52
what is Amniocentesis
- a sample of amniotic fluid is taken via needle to check for disease
- has risk for miscarriage
53
what is chorionic villi testing
- sample of projections (chorionic villi) of placenta are taken to test for disease
- greater risk for pregnancy loss
54
is Amniocentesis or CVT more accurate and why?
amniocentesis is more accurate because in CVT it takes samples of the placenta not direct samples of fetus
55
who is recommended to have amniocentesis or CVT done?
- mother 35 or older
- parents who have a child with genetic disease
- family history
56
Trisomy 21
- Down syndrome
- 3 21 chromosomes (extra)
- cause due to non-disjunction in mieosis 1
57
what are manifestations of down syndrome
- intellectual impairment that varie
- round face and slanted eyes
- small stature
- congenital heart defects
- intestinal defects
- increased risk for alzheimers
58
Turners syndrome
- sex chromosome abnormalities
- females only has 1 x (x)chromosome instead of 1
- causes: non disjunction
- features: short in stature, webbing at neck, secondary sex organ don't develop, infertile/don't through puberty
59
Kleinfelter syndrome
- sex chromosome abnormalitie
- male has extra x chromosome (xxy)
- causes: non disjunction
features: tall, long limbs, breast development, secondary sex organs don't develop, infertile
60
Autosomal dominant inheritance
- disease is expressed if only one copy is present
| - affected person has 50% of passing disease to off spring
61
Martan syndrome
- autosomal dominant disease
- effects: tall w long limbs and fingers/toes, heart valves don't close correctly, eyes can detach from retinas, blood vessels more likely yo stretch, increase in cardiac death
62
autosomal recessive inheritance
- need two copies of genes
| - both parents must be carriers
63
cystic fibrosis
- autosomal recessive disease
- most common ARD affecting white mothers
- causes mutation in chloride channels which regulates chloride and sodium movement
- effects: thick, sticky mucus that doesn't move
64
Sickle cell disease
- mutation in hemoglobin that alters RBC' shape
- leads to microinfarct due to ischemia
- RBC's will be removed by body but can result in anemia
65
Sex-linked inheritance
- mutation on the X or Y chromosome
| - more likely to occur on the X chromosome because it is bigger
66
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
- mutation on X chromosome causing neuromuscular disease
- diagnosis: around 2-3 years
- wheelchair bound at 12 years
67
teratogen
- harmful drug/chemical that affects the development of a fetus
- EX: cigarettes, alcohol, radiation, and infections
68
when is the embryonic period
first 8 weeks after fertilization
69
when is the fetal period
9-38th weeks of pregnancy
70
when is the perinatal period
- "around birth"
| - 2 weeks before birth to 1 month after birth
71
when is infancy
after birth to one year
72
when is childhood
- after infancy to before adolescene
| - 1 to puberty
73
when does adolescence begin
once child hits puberty
74
what is the most common embryonic and fetal disease?
congenital heart defects
75
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
- unexpected, sudden death of child under age of 1
- risk factors: co-sleeping, sleeping on stomach, premature birth, cigarettes, sibling who had SIDS, teen mom, no prenatal care, live in poverty
76
what is the most common cause of death in children?
drowning
77
what is a common disease pf a premature baby?
cerebral palsy
78
edema
increase in fluid for the interstitial space
79
effusion
accumulation of fluid in a body cavity
80
Thrombus
an abnormal intravascular clot which can occur in any vessel within the heart (stationary)
81
embolus
"traveling blood clot"
| -detaches from thrombus and is carried into the pulmonary or systemic circulation
82
Arterioscelorsis
hardening of the arteries
83
Atherosclerosis
- type of arterioscelrosis
| - inflammation/degenerative disease
84
Ascites
fluid in abdonmial cavity (effusion)
85
Aneurysm
ballooning/weakening of an artery
86
Common causes of edema
1. ) increase in hydrostatic pressure
2. ) decrease in osmotic pressure due to loss of albumin
3. ) kidney/liver disease
4. ) lack of protein in diet
87
hydrostatic pressure
blood pressure pushes fluid out of vessels
88
osmotic pressure
- water move into vessels due to concentration gradient
| - determined by amount of albumin in blood
89
lymph
fluid that comes out of blood composed of water, proteins, and white blood cells, that the lymphatic system will return back to blood
90
hemangioma
capillaries that divide locally and form a red spot on the skin (painless, benign, won't grow
91
lymphangioma
dilated pass of lymphatics (lump on skin, not red)
92
how does atherosclerosis develop?
injury to endothelial cells in arteries which eventually lead to endothelial cell dysfunction
93
what occurs in atherosclerosis?
1. increase in permeability causing accumulation of macrophages and smooth cells
2. ) lipid accumulation (fatty streaks) and possibly plaque
94
how does atheroscelorsis harm?
1. ) narrows lumen causing ischemia
2. ) weakens vessels wall causing aneuryam
3. ) rupturing plaque causing exposure to collagen forming a thrombus
95
what are the complications of atherscelrosis
1. ) coronary arteries can narrow and cause heart attack
2. )abdominal aorta can develop aneurysm
3. )arteris of lower limbs can cause decreased blood flow leadng to intermittent claudication
96
what is hypertension
high blood pressure above 140/90
97
primary hypertension
- hypertension that is the main problem
- majority of cases
- idiopathic
98
secondary hypertension
- hypertension that is due to another disease
| - EX: tumor on adrenal causes extra cortisol which increase blood pressure
99
what organ systems are effected by hypertension?
1. ) CNS: more likely to have stroke
2. ) cardiovascular system
3. ) kidneys: main cause of dialysis
100
aortic dissection
- tunica media of the aorta splits into two
- fatal
- feels like ripping sensation in chest anf dizziness
101
medication for hypertension
1. ) diuretics
| 2. ) ACE inhibitors
102
diuretics
increase urination which decreases cardiac output by lowering mean arterial pressure
103
ACE inhibitors
- cause lower levels of angiotensin 2
- increases TPR
- lowers cardiac output by causing less sodium and water retention
104
treatments of hypertension that is not medication
1. ) physical activity
2. ) diet: reduce sodium, increase fruits and veggies (magnesium and potassium)
- parts of DASH diet
105
risk factors of atherscelrosis
1. ) major:
- elevated blood lipids
- hypertension
- cigarette smoking
- diabetes
- obesity
2. ) Minor:
- age
- gender
- stress
- family history
106
venous thrombus
- thrombophlebits
- clot forming in deep leg veins bc blood os stationary
- caused by prolonged bed rest, cramped position for long time, genetic factors
107
what is the risk for a venous thrombus?
deep vein thrombus: peice of clot comes off and can get into heart causing pulmonary embolsim
108
varicose veins
- dialted, cury veins
- due to incompetent valve
- causes: genetics, standing
- complication: pain and visibility
- treatment is surgery
109
what is shock
failure to maintain adequate blood pressure
110
how is shock manifested?
- decreased blood flow
- increased heart rate
- decreased urine output
- altered state of conscicousness
111
cardiogenic shock
pump fails due to heart attach
112
hemorrhagic shock
loss of blood volume, usually due to truama
113
anaphylactic shock
- systemic allergic reaction causing WBC's to release vasodilators everywhere
- blood pressure drops quickly
114
septic (sepsis) shock
-blood infections leading to massive vasodilation
115
treatment of shock
- remove stressor
- fluids (saline)
- vasoconstriction agents
- antibiotics
- surgically repair beelding arteries
116
where is the mitral valve located?
between the left atrium and ventricle
117
where is the tricuspid valve located?
between the right atrium and ventricle
118
where is the pulmonary valve located
between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery
119
where is the aortic valve located
between the left ventricle and aorta
120
angina
chest pain
121
cardiomyopathy
disorder involving the chambers of the heart
122
valvular stenosis
valves doesn't open all of the way
123
valvular regurgitation
valve doesn't close all the way
124
echcardiography
uses ultrasound to see the heart and look for valve and chamber abnormalities
125
angiogram
a catheter is placed up the femoral artery and into the heart to view it
126
fibrillation
"quivering" of the chambers instead of contractions
127
what are the most common cardiac disorders?
1. ) athersclerosis
2. ) hypertension heart disease
3. ) aortic stenosis
4. ) Afib
5. ) heart failure
128
signs and symptoms of heart faillure
- fluid build up in lungs and other tissues
- shortness of breath due to pulmonary edema
- edema in extremities
129
Chest X-ray
can view if there is any fluid in lungs
130
serum enzyme level
when cells die via infarct they release enzymes
131
electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG)
- looks at the electrical activity of the heart
- track rhythm and look arrythmia
- detect heart attack
132
what is the P wave
atrial depolarization
133
what is the QRS complex
ventricular depolarization
134
what is the T wave
ventricular repolarization
135
atrial and ventricular septal defects
- defect in the septum between the atria and ventricle
| - mixes CO2 and O2 blood
136
manifestations of atrial and ventricle septal defects
- murmur
- easily fatigues
- heart failure: due to hypertrophy of ventricles
137
defects of Tetralogy of Fallot
1. ) ventricular septum defect
2. ) pulmonary stenosis: pulmonary valve can't open all the way
3. ) hypertrophy of right ventricle
4. ) overriding aorta: aorta is located above both ventricle
138
manifestations of tetralogy fallot
1. ) cyanosis (blue)
2. ) slow growth
3. ) heart failure
4. )reduced like expectancy
139
pulmonary circuit
on the right side of heart
| -receives and pumps CO2 blood from body to lungs
140
systemic circuit
on left side of heart
| -recieves O2 blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body
141
Aortic regurgitation
- most common vavlular disorder
- leaflets of aortic valve undergo changes that restrict mobility
- causes left ventricle to work harder resulting in hypertrophy
- can lead to heart failure
142
Rheumatic Fever (scarlet fever)
- streptococcal bacteria
- WBC's invade the
- valves look like the bacteria so WBC's attach to valve and cause damage
- disease does not cause the damage the immune system does
143
what is the most common cause coronary heart disease?
arrhythmia's
144
hypertensive heart disease
- hypertension causes an increase in work load on the heart
| - in order for heart to drive blood flow it must overcome the systolic pressure
145
manifestations of hypertension heart disease
- enlarged heart
- heart failure
- ischemia
146
Myocardial infarct
- death of cells due to ischemia
| - "heart attack"
147
symptoms of Myocardial infarct
- angina
- sympathetic NS response: increased HR, anxiety, vomiting
- Hypotension and shock: weakness in arms/legs
148
symptoms of MI in men and women
men are more likely to have the symptoms than women
149
diagnosis of MI
1. ) EKG: look to see if in between the S and T wave is abnormal
2. ) enzyme serum test (creatine kinase, lactase dehydrogenase, and troponin)
3. ) coronary angiogram
150
treatment of MI
- stent: holds wall of coronary artery open
- angiopasy: destroys clot
- cardiac bypass
- lifestyle changes
151
what is the goal of treatment in MI
restore blood flow immediately
152
Bradycardia
slow resting heart rate
153
tachycardia
increased resting heart rate
154
Atrial Fibrillation
- atria "quivers" instead of contracting
- blood will stay in the atria
- increased risk for thrombus
- caused by a disorganized electrical impulse
155
ventricular fibrillation
- more serious
- there is no coordination in the electrical impulses at all
- no blood flow to body
- need to use paddles to shock and reset the heart
156
dilated cardiomyopathy
- dilation of the chamber
- causes problem when contracting (systole)
- muscles too far apart
157
hypertonic cardiomyopathy
- chamber wall thickens
- chambers can't hold as much blood
- can lead to sudden cardiac arrest
- leading cause of death in young athletes
158
restrictive cardiomyopathy
- chambers are rigid which restricts stretching
| - chambers can't relax and fill with blood (diastolic)
