exam 2 Flashcards
(102 cards)
1
Q
what is an autobiographical memory?
A
memory of personal life events
2
Q
what is infantile amnesia?
A
inability to recall memories from early infancy
3
Q
what is meta memory?
A
understanding of one’s own memory abilities
4
Q
what is phonological awareness?
A
recognition of sound structures in language
5
Q
how does memory develop with age?
A
- improves steadily from infancy through adolescence
- influenced by brain development, strategies (like rehearsal), and knowledge base
6
Q
how accurate is memory? in forensic settings, how can children’s memory be distorted?
A
- children’s memories can be accurate, but also highly suggestible
- children’s memories can be distorted by leading questions, stress, or repetition
- younger children are especially vulnerable to distortion than older children
7
Q
what are best practices for forensic interviewing with children?
A
- use open ended, non-leading question
- maintain a neutral tone and supportive environment
- keep interviews short and avoid repeated questioning
8
Q
how does problem solving develop in children? what are some limitations to younger children’s
problem solving?
A
- younger children rely on trial-and-error strategies
- with age, they use planning, analogies, and insight
- some limitations are that they are still limited by working memory and attention span
9
Q
what are the components of reading?
A
- word recognition and compression are essential
- phonological awareness is critical for decoding
- reading fluency improves with exposure and instruction
10
Q
how do writing skills develop in children?
A
- writing begins with simple marks, which leads to spelling, then organized sentences
- feedback and practice is important
11
Q
how do math skills develop as children grow older?
A
- math skills evolve from basic counting to abstract operations
- feedback and practice is important
12
Q
what is fluid intelligence?
A
problem-solving and reasoning in novel situations
13
Q
what is crystallized intelligence?
A
knowledge gained from experience
14
Q
what is the flynn effect?
A
rise in average IQ scores over time
15
Q
what is the stereotype threat?
A
risk of confirming negative group stereotypes
16
Q
what is a voluntary/involuntary minority?
A
social group status and historical context
17
Q
what is a learning disability?
A
difficulty in acquiring academic skills despite average IQ
18
Q
what is g?
A
stands for general intelligence
19
Q
what theory of intelligence has the most empirical support?
A
- the general intelligence theory
- reflects broad mental ability used in problem solving and reasoning
20
Q
what intelligences are included in gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences?
A
- linguistic
- spatial
- musical
- logical-mathetical
- bodily-kinesthetic
- interpersonal
- intrapersonal
- naturalistic
21
Q
what are some commonly used intelligence tests for children?
A
- WISC (wechsler intelligence scale for children)
- the stanford-binet
22
Q
how stable are IQ scores across development?
A
they are moderately stable over time, and they become more stable with age
23
Q
what is dynamic assessment?
A
learning potential over time
24
Q
what did the hart and risley study find about child language development?
A
SES affects vocabulary exposure
25
what was done in the carolina abecedarian study, and what did they find?
early education leads to long-term gains
26
how is educational quality related to IQ scores?
high-quality education supports higher IQ outcomes
27
what are some factors that may be responsible for average differences in IQ scores among different races?
- average differences exist, but there is much overlap
- influenced by environmental factors, not race itself
- stereotype threat may depress performance in test settings
28
what IQ scores typically denotes giftedness?
130 or higher
29
what is the criteria for intellectual disability?
lower than 70 and deficits in daily functioning
30
how do children with different levels of intellectual disability differ with regard to causes and SES?
causes vary by severity and SES (e.g., genetic vs. environmental)
31
what is language?
a system that relates sounds (or gestures) to meaning
32
what are phonemes?
unique sounds that can be joined to create words
33
what is syntax?
the rules that specify how words are combined to form sentences
34
what is infant-directed speech?
adults speak slowly and in a higher pitch with exaggerated changes in pitch and loudness, along with exaggerated facial expressions
35
what is fast mapping?
identifying the proper meanings of simple words in just a few presentations
36
what is underextension?
using a word too narrowly
37
what is overextension?
using a word too broadly
38
what is telegraphic speech?
combining individual words to create two-word sentences
39
what are grammatical morphemes?
words or ending of words that make a sentence grammatical
40
at what age do symbolic gesturing and first words appear?
8-9 months, after their first birthday most have said their first word
41
what is core affect?
basic feeling states (like pleasant/unpleasant)
42
what is valence?
positive or negative emotion
43
what is arousal?
intensity of emotional activation
44
what are basic emotions?
happiness, fear, anger, sadness, surprise, disgust
45
what are self-conscious emotions?
includes guilt, embarrassment, and pride (appears at about 18-24 months)
46
what are temper tantrums?
intense emotional outbursts, common in toddlers
47
what is negative bias?
tendency to focus on negative information more than positive
48
what is social referencing?
looking to caregiver to interpret unfamiliar situations
49
what are display rules?
cultural norms for when and how emotions are expressed
50
what is emotion regulation?
controlling emotional arousal and expression
51
what is temperament?
early-emerging emotional and behavioral style
52
what is goodness-of-fit?
how well a child's temperament matches their environment
53
what is infant attachment?
strong emotional bond with a caregiver
54
what is the strange situation?
procedure to assess attachment
55
what is the internal working model?
mental representation of caregiver responsiveness
56
how do emotions develop in infants and throughout childhood?
- basic emotions appear early, usually by 6-8 months
- self conscious emotions require self-awareness, so they appear at around 18-24 months
57
how does the ability to understand others emotions develop during infancy and childhood?
- emotion understanding improves in preschool and beyond
- children learn to recognize others' emotions and react accordingly
58
how does self-regulation develop from infancy through childhood?
- early in life, mostly controlled by the external caregiver
- in toddlerhood, they begin to self-regulate
- in preschool, strategies improve with language and support
- parenting matters: warm, responsive parents support regulation
59
what research did thomas and chess do, and what were the 4 categories of infant temperament that
they identified? how can one describe easy, difficulty and slow-to-warm children based on dimensions
of temperament?
examined easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up children
60
what are rothbart's 3 dimensions of temperament?
- negative affect
- surgency
- effortful control
61
what factors contribute to temperament?
temperament is biologically based, but shaped by experience
62
what has research found about the stability of temperament?
it increases with age
63
what did harlow find in his experiment with monkeys?
comfort is stronger than food
64
how does evolutionary theory explain the purpose of attachment and infant’s cute appearance?
- cute features in infants promote caregiver bond
- a secure base leads to confidence to explore, knowing that the caregiver is still available
65
what are the 4 primary categories of attachment styles, and how do these infants behave in the strange situation?
- secure: upset when parent leaves, comforted on return
- avoidant: ignores caregiver upon return
- resistant/ambivalent: clingy, not easily comforted
- disoraganized: inconsistent, confused behavior
66
how is infant attachment related to later relationships?
- secure attachments have better relationships, emtoional regulation, and school readiness
- insecure attachments have greater risks for behavioral and emotional problems
67
what effect does childcare have on infant attachment?
childcare quality can impact attachment, but responsive parenting is key
68
what is self-concept?
how individuals view themselves
69
what is the imaginary audience?
belief that everyone is watching or judging you
70
what is a personal fable?
belief in one's uniqueness and invulnerability
71
what is the theory of identity development - diffusion, foreclossure, moratorium, achievement?
- diffusion: no exploration or commitment
- foreclosure: commitment without exploration
- exploration without commitment
- identity achievement: commitment after exploration
72
what is self-esteem?
one's overall sense of self-worth
73
what is self-control?
ability to regulate behavior and delay gratification
74
what is prosocial behavior?
actions intended to help or benefit others
75
what is antisocial behavior?
actions that harm others or go against social norms
76
what is relational aggression?
harming others through social exclusion or rumor spreading
77
what is hostile attribution bias?
tendency to interpret others' action as hostile
78
what is fast track?
intervention program for aggressive/antisocial children
79
how does self-control develop as children mature?
- around 12-18 months, infants begin to show signs of early compliance
- at 2 years, children start using language to guide behavior
- during preschool, there is an improved ability to delay gratification
- middle childhood: internalization of standards, goal-setting
80
what factors influence development of self-control?
- parental warmth and structure
- modeling and consistent discipline help children learn impulse control
- cognitive development
- cultural values may influence expectations for self-regulation
81
what are Piaget’s 2 stages of moral reasoning?
- moral realism (5-7): rules are rigid, they must be followed or consequences will come
- moral relativism (8 and older): rules are flexible, fairness becomes more nuanced
82
what are kohlberg’s 6 stages of moral reasoning? what are some limitations of kohlberg’s theory?
- 1: preconventional: obedience to avoid punishment and personal gain
- 2: conventional: social approval and law and order
- 3: postconventional: social contract and individual rights, universal ethical principles
83
how did giliigan’s theory differ from kohlberg’s theory
- kohlberg's theory is more male-centered and emphasizes justice, not care for relationship
- gilligan said that boys had justice-based reasoning while girls have relationship and care-based reasoning
84
how similar is hypothetical moral reasoning to real-life moral decisions?
- hypothetical dilemmas may not match real-life complexity
- real-life decision involve emotions, relationships, and consequences
85
how does prosocial behavior develop as children mature?
- toddlers: they begin to show empathy
- preschoolers: they begin to share and help intentionally
- school-age: understand fairness, justice, and perspective-taking
86
how can parents socialize children to engage in prosocial behavior?
- praise and reinforcement of helpful acts
- explain how actions affect others
- children imitate generous or kind behavior
- opportunities to help build competence and empathy
87
what situational factors influence whether children engage in prosocial behavior?
children are more likely to help when: they feel responsible, are capable, they are in a good mood, and the need is obvious
88
what factors contribute to children’s engagement in antisocial behavior?
- genetics and temperament
- harsh or inconsistent parenting
- peer rejection, exposure to violence
89
what are instrumental and expressive traits?
- instrumental: assertive, completive, traditionally "masculine"
- expressive: warm, emotional, traditionally "feminine"
90
what are puberty blockers?
medications to delay onset of puberty
91
what is psychological androgyny?
high levels of both instrumental and expressive traits
92
what is the valuable traits perspective?
belief that instrumental and expressive traits are equally important for all genders
93
how does the US compare to other countries in terms of gender stereotypes?
- U.S. have strong gender stereotypes, especially in early childhood
- U.S. children often show earlier and stronger stereotyping
94
what percentage of highschool youth identify as transgender?
about 1.4%
95
how common is it for LGBT youth to identify as gender fluid, or non-gender binary?
many do, and many youth use terms like they/them, genderqueer, or non-conforming
96
what types of challenges are faced by transgender youth?
- bullying, rejection
- increased risk for depression
- lack of access to gender-affirming care
97
how does gender identity develop as children mature?
- toddlerhood: labels gender
- preschool: gender-stereotyped toy/play preferences
- early childhood: riding gender thinking
- middle childhood: understanding that gender roles can be flexible
98
what biological factors influence children’s gender identity?
- hormonal differences
- prenatal hormone exposure to influences interests and behaviors
- brain differences
99
what types of differences have been found between males and females?
- girls outperform boys in reading
- boys slightly outperform girls in math
100
how does culture affect gender differences on math and reading scores?
they shape interest and confidence in subjects
101
how can parents encourage children be less gender stereotyped?
- provide diverse toys and role models
- avoid reinforcing stereotypes
- support self-expression
- encourage instrumental and expressive traits in all children
