Final Exam Flashcards
(536 cards)
1
Q
Why are intercalated discs with their gap junctions so important?
A
“gap junctions in the intercalated discs allow electrical signals from the SA node to pass through the discs smoothly, keeping the heart chambers beating in rhythm”
2
Q
Relative refraction period
A
Can imitate a second action potential BUT ONLY IF THE CHARGE IS MUCH HIGHER
3
Q
Latent period (why)
A
Takes a moment for ca+ to move across the elk membrane
4
Q
triglycerides
A
basic fat, made of a glycerol and 3 fatty acid tails
5
Q
isometric contraction
A
muscle tenses but doesn’t shorten (trying to pick up a METRIC ton)
6
Q
collagen fibers
A
parallel bundles, strong but flexible, gives bones its flexibility
7
Q
autonomic sensory neurons (what, where)
A
sensory and motor neurons in major organs
8
Q
What are the 4 phases for a twitch contraction?
A
- latent phase- waiting for calcium ions to enter channel
- contraction phase- cell depolarizes, making charges equal on both sides
- refractory phase- cell is completely depolarized, “at the refractory phase the cell has lost its membrane potential and can’t respond to a stimulus from another neuron”
- repolarization (relaxation) phase- ATP pumps sodium out of the cell, restoring the membrane potential
9
Q
How do neurons depolarize?
A
Na+ ions enter neuron (creating an equal charge)
10
Q
eccrine glands
A
sudoriferous (sweat) glands all over the body (active at birth)
11
Q
What is the epimysium and what type of tissue is it?
A
wraps around ENTIRE muscles (dense irregular CT)
12
Q
sound waves enter this feature
A
oval window
13
Q
broca’s area problems
A
can’t speak
14
Q
Temporal lobe role
A
Olfactory and hearing
15
Q
intracellular bind sites
A
inside the cell, for lipids and lipid hormones
16
Q
Who are the contractile proteins?
A
actin and myosin
17
Q
glycosidic bonds
A
formed between saccharides
18
Q
Where are simple columnar epithelial cells found?
A
GI tract
19
Q
hypertonic solution
A
> .9%, causes crenation (used when you’re too hydrated)
20
Q
What type of cell makes T4?
A
follicular cells in the thyroid
21
Q
sarcoplasmic reticulum
A
tube that wraps around myofibril and contains many calcium ions
22
Q
What layer of skin is only on the palms and soles?
A
Stratum lucidum
23
Q
Is the Krebs cycle aerobic or anaerobic?
A
Aerobic
24
Q
hypotonic solution
A
25
Where are glucocorticoids stored?
kidney cortex
26
Where are simple columnar epithelial cells found?
GI tract
27
Where are transitional epithelial cells found?
Bladder
28
Temporal lobe role
Olfactory and hearing
29
LH
releasing hormone for ovaries and testes
30
extrapyramidal tracts
"carry info that allows for automated muscular movement (like posture)"
31
posterior pituitary releases what hormones
oxytocin, ADH
32
What are dense bodies?
structures to which intermediate filaments attach in smooth muscles to move
33
ionic bonds
give up or take electrons
34
apocrine
secrete by breaking off corners (found in groin, axillary regions; puberty)
35
exocrine glands
have ducts, 3 types (merocrine, apocrine, holocrine)
36
organical chemicals
made of carbon AND hydrogen (ex- carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids)
37
Is myosin thick or thin and does it slide or rotate?
thick, rotate
38
reverse isolation
hospital must protect the patient from us
39
simple diffusion
high to low movement across the phospholipid bilayers (occurs with H2O, CO2, O2, (and small lipids))
40
Where are stratified squamous epithelial cells found?
Skin
41
oxytocin
stimulates labor contractions
42
What are the 6 topic hormones?
```
LH
prolactin
melanocyte stimulating hormone
TSH
ACTH
GH
```
43
What charge in depolarized cell?
Equal
44
motor cell neuron bodies (where, what)
IN spinal cord (ventral root ganglion)
45
Temporal lobe role
Olfactory and hearing
46
list the 3 exocrine gland groups, what they do, and an example of where they are found
- merocrine- secretion is packaged by golgi apparatus as vesicles (salivary glands and pancreas)
- apocrine- secrete by breaking off corners (found in groin, axillary regions; puberty)
- holocrine- fill until cell explodes (sebaceous glands, oils)
47
sarcoplasm
cytoplasm of muscle cell
48
premotor cortex
voluntary movements
49
Where are transitional epithelial cells found?
Bladder
50
Where do parasympathetic preganglionic neurons exit the CNS?
Brain stem and S2-S4
51
Where are simple cuboidal epithelial cells found?
Glands
52
calcitriol
most active form of vitamin D (D3)
53
list the membrane spaces (Which has CSF, hematomas, anesthesia?)
epidural space- between bone and dura mater- anesthesia
subdural space- between dura and arachnoid mater- hematomas
subarachnoid space- between arachnoid and pia mater- CSF
54
Relative refraction period
Can imitate a second action potential BUT ONLY IF THE CHARGE IS MUCH HIGHER
55
Where are stratified cuboidal epithelial cells found?
Ducts of large exocrine glands
56
What controls smooth multi unit muscles?
nerves
57
Where is simple squamous epithelium found?
Alveoli
58
metabolism
total of all chemical reactions happening in the body
59
Where is simple squamous epithelium found?
Alveoli
60
Relative refraction period
Can imitate a second action potential BUT ONLY IF THE CHARGE IS MUCH HIGHER
61
myomesin
protein that makes up the M line
62
what two eye parts correct refraction?
cornea 60% and lens 40%
63
Ground fibers (definition)
basic substance of soft and dense ct
64
Where do sympathetic preganglionic neurons exit the CNS
T1-L2
65
What do the three primary germ layers all have in common?
They all make epithelial cells
66
What are the 4 qualities of cardiac muscle?
-involuntary -highly elongated -intercalated discs -autorhythmic
67
glucagon
raises blood sugar, releases glucose from liver cells
68
Where are stratified cuboidal epithelial cells found?
Ducts of large exocrine glands
69
What layer of skin is only on the palms and soles?
Stratum lucidum
70
glycolysis (definition)
first step in respiration
71
endocrine
secretes directly into the blood
72
what is the role of methionine in life
(AUG), start codon, couldn't make any proteins, no proteins no living
73
What two molecules travel by facilitated diffusion?
Hydrogen and glucose
74
6 classes of bones (with example)
- long bones- tibia
- short bones- carpals/tarsals
- sesamoid bones- patella
- irregular bones- vertebrae
- flat- skull
- Wormian (sutural) bones- between skull sutures
75
insulin
lowers blood sugar, opens cell to usher in glucose
76
glucagon (and what cell makes this)
raises blood glucose and is made by alpha cells
77
differentiation
"process of specializing a cell from an unspecialized state to a specialized state"
78
Acetylcholine does what to cardiac muscles?
Inhibits them
79
neutrophils
phagocytic- leave blood, enter wound, eat up bad stuff (calvary/k'N'ights)
80
carbohydrates
"provide the immediate and preferred energy source to the body"
81
reflex integration (location)
spinal cord (association neurons)
82
ectoderm
outside, epithelial (skin), nervous
83
anterior pituitary releases what hormones
TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, GH, PRL, endorphins
84
citric acid cycle (krebs cycle)
occurs in mitochondria's cytoplasm, 2 pyruvate is broken down into Acetylcholine (ACh), 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH
85
lipids
"provide stored energy"
86
Perichondrium
Membrane surrounding cartilage in the bones and HOUSES THE OSTEOPROGENITORS
87
Where are stratified cuboidal epithelial cells found?
Ducts of large exocrine glands
88
Where are simple columnar epithelial cells found?
GI tract
89
Where are pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells found?
Upper respiratory and Fallopian tubes
90
optic disk
blind spot (site of optic nerve)
91
What type of fibers make up stroma?
Reticular
92
What are the three tumor types?
Carcinoma (epithelial)
Sarcoma (connective)
Leukemia (WBC)
93
Is the Krebs cycle aerobic or anaerobic?
Aerobic
94
rRNA
type of RNA that forms the framework of ribosomes
95
Where is ca+ and when is it used?
stored in sarcoplasmic reticulum, pull off the troponin so the tropomyosin can roll back and the muscle can contract
96
non polar covalent bonds
share electrons equally BUT DON'T DISSOLVE IN H2O, ***fats***
97
What occurs during membrane potential? (contraction or relaxation)
Relaxation
98
hormone that might cause excessive urination
low ADH, insulin
99
Brodmann's area does what?
olfactory impulses are analyzed here
100
mRNA
"type of RNA that is a copy of a DNA gene"
101
Relative refraction period
Can imitate a second action potential BUT ONLY IF THE CHARGE IS MUCH HIGHER
102
Hypothalamus
ANS, connects nervous system and endocrine system (EX OF EPINEPHRINE)
103
function of semilunar canals
have neurons that detect when head is in motion (dynamic equalibrium)
104
contact inhibition
when the stratum basale cells meet, it stops other basal cells from entering the wound
105
list the 3 meninges and their location
dura mater- outer
arachnoid mater- middle
pia mater- inner
106
microglial
"phagocytic cells of CNS" (keeps brain free of infection)
107
ORI's
sites on the chromosomes where copying can start
108
Where are the parasympathetic postganglionic neuron cell bodies found?
Terminal ganglion
109
3 functions of chaperone proteins
hide lipids so they don't clump together
keep a constant supply of hormones in the blood
make tiny hormones (like T3-T4) larger so they aren't filtered out by the kidneys
110
ORI's
sites on the chromosomes where copying can start
111
glucagon
raises blood sugar, releases glucose from liver cells
112
isotonic contraction
muscle shortens, (picking up a glass of TONIC water)
113
encephalitis
infection/inflammation of the brain
114
Where are sympathetic postganglionic neuron cell bodies found"
sympathetic chain ganglion
115
Where are pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells found?
Upper respiratory and Fallopian tubes
116
3 types of connective tissue fibers
-collagen fibers- parallel bundles, strong but flexible, gives bone its flexibility -elastic fibers- allows for a return to shape -reticular fibers- make up stroma, the walls of soft organs (spleen and liver)
117
dorsal root ganglion
"general sensory neuron cell bodies are located in specific structures NEAR the spinal cord" (exposed)
118
what do each of the vitamins do for bone growth
- C- synthesis of Collagen fibers
- A- Activity of osteoblasts
- D- needed for calcium to be absorbed, UV rays activate
119
2 kinds of marrow (which are you born with, which develops with time)
- yellow marrow- develops with time
| - red marrow- born with
120
Parietal role
Gnostic (integration)
121
What enzyme stores phosphate and when is this used?
creatine kinase; used when extra energy is needed fast
122
pituitary dwarfism
lack of GH
123
lipids
"provide stored energy"
124
thalamus
"does crude analysis & routes all sensory info (except olfactory) coming up ascending tracts to correct part of the brain"
125
chondroitin sulfate
ground substance for cartilage
126
zone of proliferating cartilage
what Dr. is interested in, only zone where actual division occurs
127
dual innervation (what and where)
organs that have 2 separate nerve branches (major organs)
128
Where are stratified squamous epithelial cells found?
Skin
129
What are the three tumor types?
Carcinoma (epithelial)
Sarcoma (connective)
Leukemia (WBC)
130
cellular respiration
process of making ATP from glucose
131
What are fascicles?
bundles of 10-100 muscle cells
132
Simplified version of the 4 zones in an epiphyseal plate
Resting- anchor
Proliferating- grows
Hypertrophy- enlarges
Calcification- fills in holes
133
giantism
excess GH pre-puberty
134
What lowers blood calcium levels
calcitonin
135
stroma
walls of soft organs (spleen and liver)
136
cones
color, high light levels
137
What layer of skin is only on the palms and soles?
Stratum lucidum
138
Latent period (why)
Takes a moment for ca+ to move across the elk membrane
139
Latent period (why)
Takes a moment for ca+ to move across the elk membrane
140
mesoderm
middle, epithelial, connective, muscle
141
Where are transitional epithelial cells found?
Bladder
142
What layer of skin is where the actual division occurs?
Stratum basale
143
cones
color, high light levels
144
integumentary system (4 general traits)
-protection from infection -thermoregulator -starts vitamin D pathway -sensation source
145
function of gnostic system
combines info from all lobes so you can analyze it
146
T3-T4
control metabolism
147
calcium phosphate
ground substance for bone, this is calcium, phosphate specifically is what gives bone its strength
148
meningitis (and test)
infection/inflammation in meninges (spinal tap)
149
Hyperthyroidism is called what
Grave's disease
150
extensibility
muscle can be stretched without damaging the muscle
151
Perichondrium
Membrane surrounding cartilage in the bones and HOUSES THE OSTEOPROGENITORS
152
facilitated diffusion
high to low movement via protein gates in the phospholipid bilayer
153
Hypothyroidism is called what
Myxedema in adults
Cretinism in children
154
What is the final electron receptor?
Oxygen
155
How is the release of oxytocin controlled?
hypothalamus neurons
156
Where are pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells found?
Upper respiratory and Fallopian tubes
157
apical surface
top, may have cilia or microvilli
158
Which organs are speed up by flight or flight responses?
All except GI and urinary
159
What is the final electron receptor?
Oxygen
160
titin
attaches myosin to the Z disc, stabilizes myosin from flipping
161
oligodendrocytes
CNS only, myelin sheath cells in the CNS
162
What are the 4 functions of ATP with muscle cells?
-repolarize cell (pump sodium back out) -pump calcium ions back into sarcoplasmic reticulum -activate myosin heads -flight, flight or freeze response
163
Where are stratified squamous epithelial cells found?
Skin
164
What happens if the signal is below threshold?
Signal will be aborted (will not feel)
165
What organs do skeletal muscles make up and what does this muscle look like?
voluntary muscles; long fibers, striated
166
How do neurons repolarize?
K+ ions leave the neuron (by removing some = ions the next charge starts to become negative in the cell)
167
Acromegaly
excess GH post-puberty
168
Where are transitional epithelial cells found?
Bladder
169
cortex vs. association neurons of cerebrum
cortex- receive and INTEGRATES real time info
association- INTEGRATES past experiences (associates things!!!)
170
Parietal role
Gnostic (integration)
171
spinal thalamic ascending tract problem
can't feel pain (BECAUSE YOU DON'T HAVE THIS--- EXAMPLE OF THE LITTLE GIRL)
172
cilia
small, hairlike structures
173
Where are simple cuboidal epithelial cells found?
Glands
174
Hyperthyroidism is called what
Grave's disease
175
Why does an atom pick up a charge and what would would that charge be?
ionic bonds give up or receive electrons, (give up electrons equals + charge, receive electrons equals - charge)
176
Where are stratified squamous epithelial cells found?
Skin
177
calsequestrin
protein that neatly organizes calcium in the sarcoplasmic reticulum
178
glycosidic bonds
formed between saccharides
179
what does oxytocin do
stimulates labor contractions
180
GABA
"allow antagonistic muscles to relax" face/neck- Huntington's
181
olfactory sense uses what?
chemoreceptors
182
Relative refraction period
Can imitate a second action potential BUT ONLY IF THE CHARGE IS MUCH HIGHER
183
how blood sugar is controlled
1. receptors say blood sugar is high/low
2. brain tells the pancreas to make insulin/glucagon
3a. high- insulin opens liver cells, glucose is stored, blood sugar goes down
3b. low- glucagon works in liver cells to release stored glucose, blood sugar rises
184
What are cribriform plates?
tiny holes in the ethmoid bone
185
Where are simple cuboidal epithelial cells found?
Glands
186
polysynaptic arcs (reflexes)
sensory neuron must connect to at least 2 association neuron, redirects to a different place
187
3 kinds of cell junctions
- tight junctions- "fuse adjacent cells with a web-like strip of protein", keeps cells close and liquid out
- desmosomes- (little bit loose) links adjacent cells with transmembrane glycoproteins
- gap junctions- protein tunnels made of connexions, allow material to pass between cells (ex- cardiac cells)
188
T-tubules
"invaginations of cell membrane"
189
Meissner's Corpuscles
sense of light touch
190
Absolute refractory period
Can't initiate a second action potential yet
191
How is the release of glucocorticoids controlled?
ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
192
differentiation
"process of specializing a cell from an unspecialized state to a specialized state"
193
sarcolemma
muscle cell membrane
194
huntington's (what, where, or why)
low/no GABA, face/neck
195
isotonic solution
typical IV, .9% salt, eql amount of liquid and particles (used for mild dehydration and to increase blood volume)
196
contractibility
"a muscle cell will contract forcefully in response to an action potential"
197
Which organs are slowed down by flight or fight response?
GI and urinary
198
3 burn types and tell them apart
1st degree- redness, pain (epidermal)
2nd degree- blister (epidermal and dermal)
3rd degree- no pain in area (nerve damage) but pain around (epidermal, dermal, and hypodermal)
199
what is the role of methionine in life
(AUG), start codon, couldn't make any proteins, no proteins no living
200
What controls smooth visceral muscles?
Nerves or hormones
201
ependymal cells
make CSF
202
What's the difference between a myofibril and a sarcomere?
a myofibril is a bunch of sarcomeres connected together at their Z discs (makes muscle stringy)
203
Hyperthyroidism is called what
Grave's disease
204
Pacinian Corpuscles
sense of pressure
205
Where are simple columnar epithelial cells found?
GI tract
206
glycolysis (definition)
first step in respiration
207
sound waves exit through this feature
round windows
208
keratin
a waterproof protein
209
monosynaptic arcs (reflexes)
sensory neuron connects directly to the motor neuron (knee jerk)
210
why do proteins fold
the hydrogen bond in proteins causes this
211
tRNA
"type of RNA that transports the amino acids into the ribosomes (in the correct order)"
212
absolute refractory periods
"the period of time during which a second action potential can't be initiated" (NEURON IS COMPLETELY DEPOLARIZED)
213
organical chemicals
made of carbon AND hydrogen (ex- carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids)
214
osmosis
H2O movement from high to low concentrations
215
What layer of skin is where the actual division occurs?
Stratum basale
216
diabetes mellitus
low/faulty insulin, blood sugar regulation problems, increased urinary output
217
Cushing's Syndrome
excess glucocorticoids
218
Ground fibers (definition)
basic substance of soft and dense ct
219
Hypothyroidism is called what
Myxedema in adults
Cretinism in children
220
What charge in depolarized cell?
Equal
221
why is the stratum basale important
-its the only layer that is actively carrying on mitosis (growing)
222
When is na+ and when is it used?
found OUTSIDE cells, start action potentials by flying into sodium ion channels (depolorizes the cell)
223
What type of fibers make up stroma?
Reticular
224
uni vs. multipolar neurons
unipolar- general sensory neurons, multipolar- classic neuron drawing (all motor and association neurons)
225
Perichondrium
Membrane surrounding cartilage in the bones and HOUSES THE OSTEOPROGENITORS
226
Is the Krebs cycle aerobic or anaerobic?
Aerobic
227
What do the three primary germ layers all have in common?
They all make epithelial cells
228
describe the Renin/Angiotensin Pathway (what is this in response to and what is the end hormone)
kidneys recognize low blood pressure/volume and release renin, this converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I & II, finally aldosterone is released
229
paracrine
hormone that acts on a neighboring cell
230
Acetylcholine does what to cardiac muscles?
Inhibits them
231
Where are simple columnar epithelial cells found?
GI tract
232
What occurs during action potential? (contraction or relaxation)
contraction
233
What are the three tumor types?
Carcinoma (epithelial)
Sarcoma (connective)
Leukemia (WBC)
234
function of eustachian tubes
act to stabilize fluid pressure in back of the tympanic membrane (drain fluid from middle ear)
235
What is refraction?
bending light rays
236
myoglobin
special protein that stores oxygen in muscle cells (leaks into blood when a muscle is damaged)
237
elasticity
ability of a stretched muscle to come back to its original shape
238
metabolism
total of all chemical reactions happening in the body
239
endochondral ossification
most bones follow this cartilage model of growth (long bones, etc)
240
wernicke's area problems
babbling (non intellectual speech)
241
Where are stratified squamous epithelial cells found?
Skin
242
what are the 2 layers of the dermis and what are they made of
-papillary region- made of areolar connective tissue (have Meissner's Corpuscles) -reticular region- made of dense irregular tissues (have Pacinian Corpuscles)
243
3 types of cartilage and where they are
- fibrocartilage- intervertebral discs
- hyaline cartilage- growth plates of bone
- elastic cartilage- pinna of ear
244
What controls skeletal muscles?
nerves
245
What is the final electron receptor?
Oxygen
246
crenation and what type of solution
shriveling of cell (hypertonic solution result)
247
desmosomes
junction links adjacent cells with a transmembrane glycoproteins (little bit loose)
248
Perichondrium
Membrane surrounding cartilage in the bones and HOUSES THE OSTEOPROGENITORS
249
what motor neuron is adrenergic?
sympathetic postganglionic motor neuron
250
Latent period (why)
Takes a moment for ca+ to move across the elk membrane
251
What is the repolarization (relaxation) phase?
ATP pumps sodium out of the cell, restoring the membrane potential
252
Absolute refractory period
Can't initiate a second action potential yet
253
pheromones
hormones that act on other animals
254
frontal lobes do what
personality, intellect, emotion
255
two conditions for taste to work
"olfactory sensation (smell) must be present"
| ingested food must be partially dissolved or the taste buds can't work
256
simple diffusion
high to low movement across the phospholipid bilayers (occurs with H2O, CO2, O2, (and small lipids))
257
proteins and what they look like
do everything (picture with the two H horns, N head, C abdomen, one H arm and one R arm, C pelvis, O legs (one with a splint and no foot the other with H foot)
258
What do glucocorticoids do?
natural steroids from kidney cortex
259
action potential
the rolling open of sodium ion channels around the cell membrane (depolarized)
260
What is the latent phase?
waiting for calcium ions to enter the channel
261
What layer of skin is only on the palms and soles?
Stratum lucidum
262
What are the three tumor types?
Carcinoma (epithelial)
Sarcoma (connective)
Leukemia (WBC)
263
membrane bound binding sites
outside the cell and are for all non-lipid hormones
264
What is glaucoma?
increase in pressure inside the eye (buildup of aqueous humor)
265
What organ does cardiac muscles make up and what does this muscle look like?
cardiac; involuntary, highly elongated & branched cells, intercalated discs
266
Absolute refractory period
Can't initiate a second action potential yet
267
general sensory neurons (type of pole, where do they go, functions)
unipolar, Dorsal root ganglion, senses pain, pressure, touch, temp
268
Which band stays unchanged during muscle contraction?
A band
269
What do the three primary germ layers all have in common?
They all make epithelial cells
270
Perichondrium
Membrane surrounding cartilage in the bones and HOUSES THE OSTEOPROGENITORS
271
What charge in depolarized cell?
Equal
272
connective tissue (4 general traits)
-most varied and abundant tissue in the body -under epithelial cells -widely spaced cells with lots of matrix in between -HIGHLY vascular (except cartilage)
273
myoglobin
special protein that stores oxygen in muscle cells (leaks into blood when a muscle is damaged)
274
Absolute refractory period
Can't initiate a second action potential yet
275
osteoblasts
immature bone cells, makes bone matrix by laying down collagen fibers for the calcium phosphate
276
What is the final electron receptor?
Oxygen
277
p53
protein that controls the restriction point at the end of G1 (decides if cells stay, divide, or die)
278
What is endomysium and what type of tissue is it made of?
wraps around each INDIVIDUAL MUSCLE CELL (areolar CT)
279
What disappears during muscle contraction
- I bands
| - H zone
280
Perichondrium
Membrane surrounding cartilage in the bones and HOUSES THE OSTEOPROGENITORS
281
Absolute refractory period
Can't initiate a second action potential yet
282
What two molecules travel by facilitated diffusion?
Hydrogen and glucose
283
Simplified version of the 4 zones in an epiphyseal plate
Resting- anchor
Proliferating- grows
Hypertrophy- enlarges
Calcification- fills in holes
284
Hypothalamus
ANS, connects nervous system and endocrine system (EX OF EPINEPHRINE)
285
citric acid cycle (krebs cycle)
occurs in mitochondria's cytoplasm, 2 pyruvate is broken down into Acetylcholine (ACh), 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH
286
glycolysis
glucose is broken down into 2 pyruvate, 2 NADH, and 2 FADH
287
Where is simple squamous epithelium found?
Alveoli
288
who is the one adrenic autonomic nervous system motor neuron?
sympathetic postganglionic motor neuron
289
apocrine glands
sudoriferous (sweat) glands active at puberty, modified glands of axillary and groin
290
What is the perimysium and what type of tissue is it made of?
wraps around FASICICLES (bundles of 10-100 muscle cells) (dense irregular CT)
291
anabolism
builds up small molecules REQUIRES ENERGY
292
What two molecules travel by facilitated diffusion?
Hydrogen and glucose
293
white vs. gray mater (Why their appearance and function)
white matter- has myelin sheaths on axons
gray- neuron cell bodies
294
What do the three primary germ layers all have in common?
They all make epithelial cells
295
gap junctions
protein tunnels made of connexions, allow material to pass between cells (ex- cardiac cells)
296
ribosomes
synthesize proteins by connecting multiple amino acids with peptide bonds
297
Acetylcholine does what to cardiac muscles?
Inhibits them
298
Simplified version of the 4 zones in an epiphyseal plate
Resting- anchor
Proliferating- grows
Hypertrophy- enlarges
Calcification- fills in holes
299
prolactin
controls milk production
300
motor end plate
muscle cell receptor site directly opposite of the synaptic vesicles, this opens sodium ion channels
301
cerumin
ear wax (from ceruminous glands)
302
Where are sympathetic postganglionic neuron cell bodies found?
Sympathetic chain ganglion
303
Hypothalamus
ANS, connects nervous system and endocrine system (EX OF EPINEPHRINE)
304
Hypothalamus
ANS, connects nervous system and endocrine system (EX OF EPINEPHRINE)
305
ADH
decreases urinary output, lack of this is diabetes insipidus
306
Hypothalamus
ANS, connects nervous system and endocrine system (EX OF EPINEPHRINE)
307
What happens if the signal is below threshold?
Signal will be aborted (will not feel)
308
choriod's two functions
provides nutrients and absorbs light that has already been seen
309
What raises blood calcium levels?
PTH
310
adipose
fats layer (energy storage), insulation, thermoregulation
311
saccharides
building blocks of carbs (glycosidic bonds)
312
crenation and what type of solution
shriveling of cell (hypertonic solution result)
313
Simplified version of the 4 zones in an epiphyseal plate
Resting- anchor
Proliferating- grows
Hypertrophy- enlarges
Calcification- fills in holes
314
tRNA
"type of RNA that transports the amino acids into the ribosomes (in the correct order)"
315
osteoprogenitor cells
bone stem cells, only kind of bone cell that cal divide, initially an osteoprogenitor cell itself (to keep the stem cell line going)
316
superior colliculus problem
no reflex to visual
317
somatosensory area problems
can't feel light touch, pain, sensations (general sensatory things)
318
Where are simple cuboidal epithelial cells found?
Glands
319
epithelial tissues
avascular, cover all free surfaces (outermost tissue surface), make up glands, tightly packed cells (tight junctions)
320
What does T4 do?
controls metabolism
321
What are the three tumor types?
Carcinoma (epithelial)
Sarcoma (connective)
Leukemia (WBC)
322
hyaluronic acid
gel-like ground substance for soft and dense connective tissues
323
How is the release of T4 controlled?
TSH
324
ventral root ganglion
"motor neurons cell bodies are found IN the spinal cord" (protected by rib cage)
325
Hyperthyroidism is called what
Grave's disease
326
Where are stratified squamous epithelial cells found?
Skin
327
What layer of skin is only on the palms and soles?
Stratum lucidum
328
What do the three primary germ layers all have in common?
They all make epithelial cells
329
schwann
PNS only, myelin sheath cells in PNS
330
What is the final electron receptor?
Oxygen
331
how does water ionize compounds and why is this so important
O- attracts Na+, H+ attracts Cl-, this allows our bodies to break down molecules and be able to use the individual elements
332
IPSP
total charge is NEGATIVE
333
gyrus
folds of brain in cerebrum
334
goiter
lack of iodine creates enlarged thyroid
335
Hypothyroidism is called what
Myxedema in adults
Cretinism in children
336
6 characteristics of life
movement, responds to stimuli/environment, differentiation, metabolism, reproduction, growth
337
What are the 5 sarcomere bands/lines/zones?
- H zone- center of any sarcomere -A band-center part of a sarcomere that contains the whole myosin filament (and parts of actin filaments) -I band- only contains actin -Z disc- ends of the sarcomere -M line- middle thick bit, stops actin from contracting too far (think of it as a parking block)
338
mRNA
"type of RNA that is a copy of a DNA gene"
339
why do proteins fold
the hydrogen bond in proteins causes this
340
basophils
release histamine (causes inflammatory response- more blood = more WBC) ('B'ee sting swelling)
341
6 characteristics of life
movement, responds to stimuli/environment, differentiation, metabolism, reproduction, growth
342
What connects the pituitary and the hypothalamus?
infundibulum
343
how does water ionize compounds and why is this so important
O- attracts Na+, H+ attracts Cl-, this allows our bodies to break down molecules and be able to use the individual elements
344
hypertrophy
enlargement of a cell (hypotonic solution result)
345
what is hypercalcemia, its symptoms, what hormone responds to this?
-high blood calcium -symptoms- heart stops, weakness -calcitonin- lowers blood calcium levels {by stimulating osteoblasts}
346
Where are pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells found?
Upper respiratory and Fallopian tubes
347
connexions
an assembly of 6 proteins called connexins that form the pore for a gap junction between the cytoplasm of 2 adjacent cells
348
Temporal lobe role
Olfactory and hearing
349
Where are pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells found?
Upper respiratory and Fallopian tubes
350
hypodermis
attaches skin to underlying structures
351
2 important properties of receiving neurons
- membrane potential
| - ion channels
352
zone of hypertrophy
cells enlarge and burst, altering pH (and leaving a hollow space)
353
What do the three primary germ layers all have in common?
They all make epithelial cells
354
sensory neurons have to connect to association neurons (why?
only CNS can analyze information
355
4 zones in an epiphyseal plates
- zone of resting cartilage
- zone of proliferating cartilage
- zone of hypertrophy
- zone of calcification
356
isotonic solution
typical IV, .9% salt, eql amount of liquid and particles (used for mild dehydration and to increase blood volume)
357
autocrine
hormone secreted locally and acts on the cells that secreted them
358
Acetylcholine does what to cardiac muscles?
Inhibits them
359
What is incomplete tetanus and what is the contraction rate?
has relaxation periods between contractions, everyday contraction; 20-30 times a second
360
What is the final electron receptor?
Oxygen
361
What does the hypothalamus do?
makes oxytocin, ADH & releasing (tropic) hormones, sends releasing hormones to glands
362
osteoclasts
phagocytic bone cells (break down bone)
363
Where are simple cuboidal epithelial cells found?
Glands
364
What is complete tetanus and what is the contraction rate?
no relaxation period between contractions, EMERGENCY ONLY; 80-100 times a second
365
Hypothyroidism is called what
Myxedema in adults
Cretinism in children
366
zone of calcification
fills the hollow space (becomes the lamellae)
367
What charge in depolarized cell?
Equal
368
Is the Krebs cycle aerobic or anaerobic?
Aerobic
369
calcitonin
lowers blood calcium levels
370
Where do parasympathetic preganglionic neurons exit the CNS
brain stem and S2-S4
371
Relative refraction period
Can imitate a second action potential BUT ONLY IF THE CHARGE IS MUCH HIGHER
372
What layer of skin is where the actual division occurs?
Stratum basale
373
What organ is both exocrine and endocrine?
pancreas
374
How is the release of endorphins controlled?
hypothalamus uses neurons
375
electron transport chain
occurs in mitochondria's inner membrane (squiggly bit), 12 NADH is broken down into NAD, H+, 2 electrons, and 34-38 ATP
376
Temporal lobe role
Olfactory and hearing
377
What kind of neurons are the special senses?
bipolar sensory neurosn
378
osmosis
H2O movement from high to low concentrations
379
midbrain problem
parkinsons
380
normal blood pH range and how do you control this
7.35-7.45, CO2 levels in your blood (holding your breath lowers your blood pH, hyperventilating raises your blood pH)
381
reticular fibers
make up stroma, the walls of soft organs (spleen and liver)
382
What is the contraction phase?
cell depolarizes, making charges equal on both sides
383
non polar covalent bonds
share electrons equally BUT DON'T DISSOLVE IN H2O, ***fats***
384
carbohydrates
"provide the immediate and preferred energy source to the body"
385
Ground fibers (definition)
basic substance of soft and dense ct
386
Where are simple columnar epithelial cells found?
GI tract
387
What type of fibers make up stroma?
Reticular
388
corpus callosum role
commissural fibers that connect cerebral hemispheres
389
endorphins
type of neurotransmitter that significantly blocks pain
390
how blood sugar is controlled
1. receptors say blood sugar is high/low
2. brain tells the pancreas to make insulin/glucagon
3a. high- insulin opens liver cells, glucose is stored, blood sugar goes down
3b. low- glucagon works in liver cells to release stored glucose, blood sugar rises
391
What happens if mV is above the threshold (or at threshold)
signal will travel down the postsynaptic neuron (signal will be sent)
392
tight junctions
"fuse adjacent cells with a web-like strip of protein", keeps cells close and liquid out
393
Simplified version of the 4 zones in an epiphyseal plate
Resting- anchor
Proliferating- grows
Hypertrophy- enlarges
Calcification- fills in holes
394
cholinergic
uses acetylcholine as it's neurotransmitter
395
threshold in mV?
-55mV
396
reverberating circuits
info is looped from 1 neuron an THIS IS SHORT TERM MEMORY
397
microvilli
small folds
398
macula lutea
area of eye with best visual acuit
399
Where is simple squamous epithelium found?
Alveoli
400
function of ossicles
help conduct sound waves to the inner ear
401
What do endorphins do?
flight or flight response
402
glycolysis
glucose is broken down into 2 pyruvate, 2 NADH, and 2 FADH
403
What do myosin heads rotate towards during a power stroke?
the M line
404
What is the mesoderm? (in terms of the muscular system)
where skeletal muscles come from, it differentiates into myoblasts
405
What organs do smooth multi unit muscles make up and what does this muscle look like?
arrector pili & iris, pointy ends, involuntary
406
inferior colliculus problem
no reflex to sound
407
What type of hormone is T4?
"biogenic amine"
408
What organs do smooth visceral muscles make up and what does this muscle look like?
walls of blood vessels & hollow organs such as the bladder and stomach, pointy ends, involuntary
409
What layer of skin is where the actual division occurs?
Stratum basale
410
central sulcus
groove that separates frontal and parietal lobes
411
rods
detect crude images, low light, no color vision
412
myxedema
low T3-T4 levels in adults
413
chemoreceptors
"axons of olfactory neurons exit through tiny holes in the ethmoid bone called the cribriform plate
414
dopamine
"allow antagonistic muscles to relax" arm/leg- parkinson's
415
rRNA
type of RNA that forms the framework of ribosomes
416
What type of fibers make up stroma?
Reticular
417
motor unit
"a single motor neuron and all the muscle cells it associates with"
418
membrane potential
"whenever a cell has a difference in charge across its membrane" (polarized)
419
Latent period (why)
Takes a moment for ca+ to move across the elk membrane
420
What two molecules travel by facilitated diffusion?
Hydrogen and glucose
421
cerebellum role
helps control posture and gait, don't need this to live
422
Where are stratified cuboidal epithelial cells found?
Ducts of large exocrine glands
423
What is the main neurotransmitter?
acetylcholine
424
7 soft connective tissues and where they are located
- areolar CT- papillary (upper) part of dermis
- adipose- hypodermis (only soft CT that matures its own cells)
- reticular CT- in stroma (walls) of soft tissue organs
- elastic CT- artery walls
- dense regular CT- reticular (lower) layer of dermis
- dense irregular CT- dermis
- cartilage- housed in the lacunae
425
EPSP
total charge is POSITIVE
426
electron transport chain
occurs in mitochondria's inner membrane (squiggly bit), 12 NADH is broken down into NAD, H+, 2 electrons, and 34-38 ATP
427
What two molecules travel by facilitated diffusion?
Hydrogen and glucose
428
What controls smooth multi unit muscles?
nerves
429
iris
colored muscle that regulates pupil size
430
Where are endorphins made?
medulla of kidneys
431
6 classes of bones (with example)
- long bones- tibia
- short bones- carpals/tarsals
- sesamoid bones- patella
- irregular bones- vertebrae
- flat- skull
- Wormian (sutural) bones- between skull sutures
432
Where are simple cuboidal epithelial cells found?
Glands
433
list the 6 epithelial cell arrangements
-simple squamous -stratified squamous -simple cuboidal -stratified cuboidal -simple columnar -stratified columnar -pseudostratified
434
Where are pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells found?
Upper respiratory and Fallopian tubes
435
Is the Krebs cycle aerobic or anaerobic?
Aerobic
436
Blood Brain Barrier (5 things you need to know)
- capillaries
- fenestrations
- astrocytes
- perivascular feet
- tight junctions
437
Ground fibers (definition)
basic substance of soft and dense ct
438
What are the 2 ways muscle contraction is controlled?
-the number and size of motor units recruited -the frequency of stimulation
439
Ground fibers (definition)
basic substance of soft and dense ct
440
endochondral ossification
most bones follow this cartilage model of growth (long bones, etc)
441
normal blood pH range and how do you control this
7.35-7.45, CO2 levels in your blood (holding your breath lowers your blood pH, hyperventilating raises your blood pH)
442
Parietal role
Gnostic (integration)
443
hypertonic solution
>.9%, causes crenation (used when you're too hydrated)
444
Parietal role
Gnostic (integration)
445
Where is simple squamous epithelium found?
Alveoli
446
medullary pyramids
"association neurons carrying motor response info crosses over here"
447
What does the parasympathetic nervous system do?
slows things down
448
Temporal lobe role
Olfactory and hearing
449
facilitated diffusion
high to low movement via protein gates in the phospholipid bilayer
450
aldosterone
increases blood pressure and volume
451
What controls smooth multi unit muscles?
nerves
452
resting membrane potential in MV?
-70mV
453
posterior column tracts
carry info about movement & 2 point discrimination
454
serous membrane, its 2 layers, and where are these layers found (generally)
- visceral layer- on the outside of the organ
| - parietal layer- lines the cavity the organ sits in
455
What charge in depolarized cell?
Equal
456
Latent period (why)
Takes a moment for ca+ to move across the elk membrane
457
amino acids and how many
20 of these, basic building blocks of life (peptide bonds between these things)
458
Simplified version of the 4 zones in an epiphyseal plate
Resting- anchor
Proliferating- grows
Hypertrophy- enlarges
Calcification- fills in holes
459
ribosomes
synthesize proteins by connecting multiple amino acids with peptide bonds
460
What two molecules travel by facilitated diffusion?
Hydrogen and glucose
461
p53
protein that controls the restriction point at the end of G1 (decides if cells stay, divide, or die)
462
rickets
vitamin D deficiency, bowed legs (soft bone)
463
Acetylcholine does what to cardiac muscles?
Inhibits them
464
2 base epithelial cell parts
-apical surface -basement membrane
465
covalent bonds
share electrons
466
astrocytes
Blood brain barrier, CNS, star shaped, "perivascular feet" CONTROLS WHAT ENTERS THE BRAIN
467
What charge in depolarizer cell?
Different
468
Where are stratified cuboidal epithelial cells found?
Ducts of large exocrine glands
469
Hyperthyroidism is called what
Grave's disease
470
fibroblasts
immature soft and dense connective tissue cells
471
amino acids and how many
20 of these, basic building blocks of life (peptide bonds between these things)
472
What does the sympathetic nervous system do?
speeds things up
473
insulin
lowers blood sugar, opens cell to usher in glucose
474
Parietal role
Gnostic (integration)
475
Acetylcholine does what to cardiac muscles?
Inhibits them
476
What type of fibers make up stroma?
Reticular
477
Base pairing rules (DNA and RNA)
DNA: A-T, C-G
RNA: C-G, A-U
478
serotonin
stimulates happiness, lack of this causes depression
479
Where is k+ and when is it used?
found INSIDE the cells, removed by sodium potassium pumps to repolorize the cell
480
insulin (and what cell makes this)
lowers blood glucose and is made by beta cells
481
Is actin thick or thin and does it slide or rotate?
thin; slides
482
What layer of skin is where the actual division occurs?
Stratum basale
483
Hypothalamus
ANS, connects nervous system and endocrine system (EX OF EPINEPHRINE)
484
macrophages
HIGHLY phagocytic, these are monocytes that have left blood and entered tissue (clean up wound) (pac man)
485
endoderm
inner, epithelial, inside of the digestive tract
486
choroid plexus role
makes CSF (capillaries and ependymal cells)
487
Base pairing rules (DNA and RNA)
DNA: A-T, C-G
RNA: C-G, A-U
488
What are the 8 steps to a muscle contraction?
1. electrical stimulus must travel down the neuron
2. this causes the synaptic vesicles to line up and release acetylcholine (into the synaptic cleft)
3. acetylcholine opens a sodium ion channel on the motor end plate of the muscle cell
4. sodium ions fly into the cell, starting an action potential
5. the action potential causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium ions
6. calcium ions pull off troponin and roll back the tropomyosin. this opens up the myosin head binding sites
7. ATP is broken down on the myosin head, this energy is put into the myosin head, popping it into the binding site(on both sides of the M-line)
8. both energized heads engage and power stroke (rotate) pulling the Z-discs closer together
489
Is the Krebs cycle aerobic or anaerobic?
Aerobic
490
diverging circuit
"1 presynaptic neuron synapses with MANY postsynaptic neurons"
491
adrenergic
uses adrenaline as it's neurotransmitter
492
Hypothyroidism is called what
Myxedema in adults
Cretinism in children
493
exocrine
have ducts, release onto skin or in the GI tract
494
intramembranous ossification
making a bone inside a membrane (think skull bones (finished by 2nd year))
495
ionic bonds
give up or take electrons
496
Where are parasympathetic neuron cell bodies found?
terminal axons
497
hypertrophy
enlargement of a cell (hypotonic solution result)
498
Absolute refractory period
Can't initiate a second action potential yet
499
occipital lobe problems
vision problems
500
zone of resting cartilage
chondrocytes anchor the epiphyseal plate to the epiphysis
501
saccharides
building blocks of carbs (glycosidic bonds)
502
Hypothyroidism is called what
Myxedema in adults
Cretinism in children
503
Where are transitional epithelial cells found?
Bladder
504
melatonin
sleep wake cycle, pineal gland
505
Hyperthyroidism is called what
Grave's disease
506
Where are transitional epithelial cells found?
Bladder
507
Where are stratified cuboidal epithelial cells found?
Ducts of large exocrine glands
508
where is oxytocin stored?
posterior pituitary
509
Ground fibers (definition)
basic substance of soft and dense ct
510
What layer of skin is where the actual division occurs?
Stratum basale
511
cretinism
low T3-T4 levels in infants
512
eyes
bend light rays (refraction)
513
What are the three tumor types?
Carcinoma (epithelial)
Sarcoma (connective)
Leukemia (WBC)
514
What layer of skin is only on the palms and soles?
Stratum lucidum
515
catabolism
breaks large molecules down MAKES OR RELEASES ENERGY
516
covalent bonds
share electrons
517
merocrine
secretion is packaged by golgi apparatus as vesicles (salivary glands and pancreas)
518
compare spongy bone to compact bone
- spongy- red bone marrow, epiphysis, spaces
| - compact- yellow bone marrow, diaphysis, osteons
519
What is the refractory phase?
the cell is COMPLETELY depolarized, "at this refractory phase the cell has lost its membrane potential and can't respond to a stimulus from another neuron"
520
What charge in depolarizer cell?
Different
521
What charge in depolarized cell?
Equal
522
catabolism
breaks large molecules down MAKES OR RELEASES ENERGY
523
medulla role
respiratory center
524
melanocyte stimulating hormone
makes melanin
525
What type of fibers make up stroma?
Reticular
526
polar covalent bonds
share electrons equally (ex- H2O)
527
cellular respiration
process of making ATP from glucose
528
holocrine
fill until cell explodes (sebaceous glands, oils)
529
anabolism
builds up small molecules REQUIRES ENERGY
530
Parietal role
Gnostic (integration)
531
Where is simple squamous epithelium found?
Alveoli
532
Parkinson's (what, where, or why)
low/no dopamine, arm/leg
533
Why does an atom pick up a charge and what would would that charge be?
ionic bonds give up or receive electrons, (give up electrons equals + charge, receive electrons equals - charge)
534
Where do sympathetic preganglionic neurons exist the CNS?
T1-L2
535
parathyroid hormone
raises blood calcium levels
536
proteins and what they look like
do everything (picture with the two H horns, N head, C abdomen, one H arm and one R arm, C pelvis, O legs (one with a splint and no foot the other with H foot)
