*Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Prostate
A
citric acid secretions (potential ATP source), enlarges with age, declotting factors
2
Q
glomerulus
A
many folded capillaries
3
Q
vas deferens
A
tube transports sperm back into body (outside for lower temp- dartos and cremaster muscles help this)
4
Q
Plexus of Meissner
A
neurons for mucus glands (food lubrication) in submucosa layer
5
Q
erythropoietin
A
growth factor synthesized by kidneys and functions in the differentiation of RBCs
6
Q
4 breathing patterns
A
- eupnea- normal breathing (16-20 per min)
- apnea- temporary cessation of breathing (snoring, overweight, alcohol, preemies)
- dyspnea- painful breathing
- tachypnea- rapid breathing (~40 per min)
7
Q
testosterone
A
major male hormone, made by leydig cells, male embryonic development, secondary traits, aggression
8
Q
passive artificial immunity
A
antibody shot (rabies shots)
9
Q
secondary oocyte (what and where)
A
telophase I, generates first polar body, in graafian follicle, becomes egg
10
Q
Boyle’s law in relation to ventilation
A
relaxed diaphragm- lung and outside air pressure are equal (maybe 760mmHg)
diaphragm contracts, increases lung volume, LOWERING pressure
inhale- high pressure outside, low pressure inside pushes air in
air pressure goes to equal or slightly higher (780 mmHg)
relax the diaphragm- volume lowers, pressure inside increases, exhale
11
Q
raphe
A
scrotal midline (used for surgery)
12
Q
thymosin
A
thymus gland hormone that matures T cells after they leave the red bone marrow
13
Q
uncontrolled diabetes and metabolic acidosis (why?)
A
can’t get glucose into cells to make ATP, so cells use fat for energy. when fats are converted to ATP, acidic ketones are produced, causing ketoacidosis (metabolic acidosis) in the blood
14
Q
Juxtaglomerular cells
A
make renin, recognize low blood volume, starts renin-angiotensin pathway
15
Q
salivary amylase
A
enzyme in saliva that breaks down carbs into sugars
16
Q
Frank-Starling Law
A
increased preload causes increased contractility
17
Q
passive natural immunity
A
mom and baby, breastmilk, placenta
18
Q
Inhibin in females
A
stops FSH so pregnancy can progress, made by granulosa cells
19
Q
What allows you to hold your breath?
A
cerebral cortex
20
Q
larynx
A
anterior and inferior branch of pharynx, leads to respiratory system
21
Q
active natural immunity
A
best, actually get disease (strep)
22
Q
electrical conduction route through the heart
A
SA node, atria, AV node, atria contract together, bundle of His, bundle branches, Purkinje fibers, ventricles contract
23
Q
ANP does what with the urinary system?
A
suppresses ADH and aldosterone, shuts down renin-angiotension pathway, promotes diuresis (urination)
24
Q
estrogen
A
granulosa cells, secondary traits, embryo development, water balance, lowers cholesterol
25
T cells
combat intracellular antigens, these kill infected cells (Mr. T)
26
fimbriae
fingers, move egg to fallopian tubes
27
microvilli
tiny folds in the membrane of the epithelial cells lining the small intestine
28
Frank-Starling Law
increased preload causes increased contractility
29
Lack of ADH causes what?
diabetes insipidus
30
dysuria
painful urination
31
Where are all blood cells produced?
red bone marrow
32
progesterone (function and what cells produce)
from thecal cells of corpus luteum, pregnancy hormone, takes uterus from proliferative to secretory state, produce milk
33
uncontrolled diabetics and polyphagia (why?)
"uncontrolled diabetics have excessive glucose in the blood, but no insulin to open doorways for glucose to get into the cells. The cells are starving and sending the message to eat"
34
lymph nodes
ENCAPSULATED, found within vessels
35
zona pellucida
fluid layer initially seen in primary follicles, surrounds egg, immediately closes after fertilization (menstrual phase)
36
terminal bronchioles
smallest branches
37
What vessels surround the DCT and PCT?
peritubular capillaries
38
second line of defense
fever, phagocytic cells (WBCs), inflammatory response
39
polyuria
overproduction of urine
40
Pepsinogen/pepsin
HCl activates pepsinogen, converts it to pepsin, pepsin cuts up proteins into small strings called peptides
41
interleukins
"chemical messengers that coordinate the activities of the immune system"
42
corpus albicans
dead corpus luteum (no pregnancy) (post ovulatory phase)
43
uncontrolled diabetics and polyuria (why?)
with excess glucose in the blood, more is being filtered into the filtrate
the cell doors quickly reach Transport Maximum (Tm) and can't get all the glucose back into the blood
"excess glucose goes down the descending limb, reversing osmosis, and making (LOTS OF) water enter the limb instead of leaving like it should"
44
kupffer cells
"major phagocytic cells of the liver", destroy old RBCs, converts heme to bilirubin (enters bile, gives feces its color)
not working = chronic infections and jaundice (bilirubin buildup)
45
Acini cells
produce pancreatic juiceput HCO3- into pancreatic juice (which becomes sodium bicarbonate)
neutralizing acidic chyme entering small intestines
puts H+ into blood to correct alkaline nature
make the 8 pancreatic enzymes
46
renal autoregulation
ability of kidneys to maintain a constant glomerular filtration rate despite changes
47
segmentation
-muscles of the small intestine break chyme into sections and move it along
-breaks big fat globules into smaller globules
MAKES IT EASIER TO ABSORB FATS
48
antibodies (function and who makes)
made by B cells, destroy antigens
49
arytenoid cartilage
in back of larynx, controls movement of vocal chords
50
renal auto regulation
ability of kidneys to maintain a constant glomerular filtration rate despite changes
51
Juxtaglomerular apparatus (and what happens when you're angry)
maintains normal glomerular blood pressure
EX- anger (causes BP to rise dramatically), juxtaglomerular apparatus will vasoconstrict afferent arterioles (less blood in) and vasodilate efferent arterioles (more blood out)
52
(increased) urinary frequency
voiding more than normal
53
primary oocyte (what and where)
prophase I, initial egg (crossing over & synapsis), in primordial follicle (all eggs are frozen in this state)
54
secondary bronchi
branches leading to lobes of lungs
55
What are reticulocytes and what makes them so odd?
immature RBCs that have expunged their nucleus and kept their organelles (mature RBC's have no organelles)
56
neutrophils
phagocytic WBC that is first to a wound site
57
Bohr effect
(how pH affects affinity)
CO2 from tissues goes to blood
this causes acidosis (it's generating H+ from H2O)
hemoglobin recognizes the pH drop and lets go of its O2
hemoglobing then picks up the extra H+, rasing pH
58
apneustic center
slows down respiration
59
Lack of ADH causes what?
diabetes insipidus
60
seminiferous tubules
produce sperm (in lobules)
61
leydig cells
make testosterone
62
interferon
chemicals that warn healthy cells of a virus
63
intercalated cells
cells involved in pH adjustment (compensatory response cells, move H+ between blood and filtrate)
64
Trypsinogen/trypsin
enterokinase activates trypsinogen, converts it to trypsin, trypsin then activates the protein enzymes (elastase, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase)
65
asthma
spasm of smooth muscle walls of the terminal bronchioles
66
nocturia
excessive urination at night (because of posteral change)
67
is it possible to become pregnant without the big LH surge?
No, without the LH surge the egg can't rupture the graafian follicle and can't be released
68
Dalton's Law
"each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure, as if all other gases were not present" (look at each gas individually)
partial pressure- pressure exerted by an individual gas (lower at altitudes... also what medicine is really interested in)
69
cardiac output (what, normal output, and calculate)
amount of blood pumped out by the left ventricle in one minute, 4-6L DON'T FORGET IT IS IN LITERS FOR MINUTE, SV X HR = CO
70
Two types of alveolar cells
- type I alveolar cells- "gas exchange between air and blood happens across these cells"
- type II alveolar cells- make surfactant
71
principal cells
BIND SITES for ADH and aldosterone (goal- boost low blood volume and pressure)
72
pharynx
common tube for food and air
73
intrinsic clotting pathway
activated by trauma inside the vascular system (minor cuts)
74
pancreatic amylase
breaks down carbs into disaccharides in the small intestine
75
graafian follicle
mature secondary follicle (preovulatory phase)
76
lymph nodules
"clusters of lymphocytes embedded on reticular fibers within mucus membranes"
77
parietal cells
contain enzyme carbonic anhydrase
also run CO2 + H2O ⇔ HCO3- + H+ reaction
put H+ into stomach to make HCl
put HCO3- into blood (alkaline, neutralizes H+)
78
tunica albuginea
fibrous, forms incomplete septa
79
8 pancreatic enzymes and what they break down into
```
pancreatic amylase - disaccharides
pancreatic lipase - fats
ribonuclease - nucleic acids
deoxyribonuclease - nucleic acids
trypsinogen (inactive) - converted by enzyme enterokinase into trypsin
TRYPSIN THEN ACTIVATES...
chymotrypsin - proteins
elastase - proteins
carboxypepsidase - proteins
```
80
enterokinase
activates trypsinogen
81
What does the chorion do?
fetal part of placenta, allows nutrients to pass, fits in secretory folds
82
varicocele
Varicose vein in testes causes infertility by raising temperature (killing sperm)
83
MAC
membrane attack complex
84
humoral pathway (targets what, who are the main cells)
(blood pathway for disease prevention- targets pathogen)
- B cell is activated, ingests pathogen
- B cell attaches epitope to MHC II marker (antigen presentation)
- Th cell binds to MHC II, produces interleukin II
- interleukin II pushes B cell to divide into 2 groups: memory cells and plasma cells (plasma cells make antibodies)
85
blood pressure (what and normal numbers)
pressure of blood against in the inside wall of a blood vessel, 120/80
86
Plexus of Auerbach
neurons that stimulate peristalsis in muscularis layer
87
antrum
gathered vesicles, form graafian follicle (preovulatory phase) (Mike Wazowski smile)
88
is it possible to become pregnant without the big LH surge?
No, without the LH surge the egg can't rupture the graafian follicle and can't be released
89
2 digestive system cells that run the carbonic anhydrase reaction, where they are, and what their purpose is
parietal cells- stomach, contain carbonic anhydrase and run reaction
puts H+ into stomach (makes HCl)
puts HCO3- into blood (alkaline, neutralizes H+)
acini cells- produce pancreatic juice
put HCO3- into pancreatic juice, neutralizes acidic chyme entering small intestine
puts H+ into blood to correct its alkaline (pH 7.35-7.45) nature
90
monocytes
differentiate into macrophages which clean up dead cells
91
What does the ascending loop do?
impermeable to water, also Na+ is actively pumped back out to tissues here
92
acid reflux disease
caused by a defective cardiac sphincter, acid rises into esophagus, results in damage to esophageal wall (as there is no protective mucus)
93
Macula Densa cells
ascending tubule cells in region where it makes contact with afferent arterioles (CONNECTS TUBES TO BLOOD)
94
hemoglobin and iron
protein that carries oxygen inside a RBC, oxygen binds to the iron in the hemoglobin
95
cricoid cartilage
only cartilage ring to completely surround airway
96
LH in females
ruptures follicle, ovulation
97
mixing waves
mechanical action the the stomach created by peristalis, churning creates this
98
first line of defense
barriers (skin, mucus, tears)
99
GnRH in females
releases FSH
100
sertoli cells
span seminiferous tubule walls, nurtures germ cells in spermatogenesis
101
Juxtaglomerular apparatus (and what happens when you're angry)
maintains normal glomerular blood pressure
EX- anger (causes BP to rise dramatically), juxtaglomerular apparatus will vasoconstrict afferent arterioles (less blood in) and vasodilate efferent arterioles (more blood out)
102
Sympathetic response does what to blood pressure?
raises it by vasoconstriction
103
Pregnancy occurs on what days of a 28 day cycle?
14th most likely, 15th maybe
104
reabsorption
occurs between proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and peritubular capillaries, ESPECIALLY glucose and water
105
eosinophils
-respond to parasitic infections -type of leukocyte that makes ANTIHISTAMINE HISTAMINASE which shuts down the inflammatory response
106
primordial follicle
primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of granulosa cells
107
FSH in females
takes primordial follicles to primary follicles, oogenesis
108
Describe the role of prothrombinase in cuts
it activates prothrombin turning it into thrombin which converts fibrinogen into fibrin threads (bloot clots)
109
MHC II
"special markers embedded in the membranes of macrophages and B cells" (ID epitopes of invaders for T cells)
110
compensatory response
when kidneys correct acidosis caused by respiratory system (body isn't going to just give up)
111
What does the descending limb do?
Na+ concentration gradient is higher outside of descending limb, so water is forced OUT the entire length of this and the Loop of Henle (60L)
112
Boyle's Law
"pressure of a gas in a closed container is inversely proportional to the volume of that container"
113
thyroid cartilage
Adam's apple, front and side of larynx
114
Hyaline Membrane Disease (why and how do you treat)
no surfactant before 40 weeks, so preemies can't break the hydrogen bonds (water surface tension) to reinflate the alveoli
solution- shoot mom with a steroid, give baby surfactant
115
pneumotaxic center
speeds up respiration
116
basophils
produce histamines (inflammatory chemicals that vasodilate wound site)
117
thymus gland
matures T cells
118
cell mediated pathway (targets what, who are the main cells)
(Targets infected cells)
1. MHC 2 takes the epitopes the B-cells have pulled of in Humoral immunity and waves them around (antigen presentation)
2. Tc cells recognize these MHC 2 cells as viruses (remember, MHC 2 is holding onto a piece of the virus)
3. The Th cells then activate these Tc cells, who proved to roam around the body looking for infected cells that have these epitome markers
4. If they find these epitope markers in one of your body cells, the Tc cells produce perforin, puncturing the infected cell and stopping the virus from spreading
119
FSH in males
binds to sertoli cells and with testosterone promotes spermatogenesis
120
LH in males
binds to leydig cells to make testosterone
121
NK cells
kill body cells that aren't right (tumors) (Police)
122
secretion (digestive system)
depositing of enzymes into the GI tract (a key function of the pancreas)
123
2 endometrial layers
functional- sheds
basal- regeneration occurs here
124
Parasympathetic response does what to blood pressure?
lowers it by vasodilation
125
chief cells
secrete inactive pepsinogen
126
2 kinds of stomach cells
chief cells- secrete inactive enzyme pepsinogen
parietal cells- contain enzyme carbonic anhydrase, also run CO2 + H2O ⇔ HCO3- + H+ reaction, put H+ into stomach to make HCl, put HCO3- into blood (alkaline, neurtralizes H+)
127
GnRH in males
releases LH/FSH
128
thecal cells
fluid capsule, makes progesterone (menstrual phase)
129
trachea
tube of 'C' shaped cartilage open in back for esophagus to swallow
130
hepatocytes
make bile
store glycogen (carbs) and fat soluble vitamins (like vitamin K)
make plasma proteins
albumin- controls osmosis, failure = ascites
alpha & beta globulins
compliment proteins- low = prone to bleeding
prothrombin- bruising
fibrinogen- more bruising
131
cryptorchidism
Undescended testicles, fix before the age of 2 or higher cancer rate / damage by body heat
132
relaxin
made by granulosa cells after it becomes the corpus luteum, relaxes uterus
133
functions of the lymphatic system
defense, fat absorption (through lacteals, fluid balance (BHP moves 30L of fluid a day, BCOP pushes 27L back in, the extra 3L is picked up by the lymphatic capillaries)
134
extrinsic clotting pathway
activated by external trauma that causes blood to escape from the vascular system (major bleeding)
135
What does the amnion do?
encases baby, filled with fetal urine, cushions, amniocentesis tests fluid in here for women over 35 (because higher birth defects)
136
B cells
lymphocytes that combat extracellular antigens, have the capacity to make a memory of that antigen" function by producing plasma cells which make antibodies (taggers) (Mothership)
137
urinary retention
failure to release urine
138
5 male hormones
LH, FSH, inhibin, GnRH, adn testosterone
139
seminal vesicles
secretions contain fructose (energy source), alkaline to neutralize FEMALE urine, clotting factors (clump sperm to protect from urine), prostaglandins ( help sperm motility and viability)
140
leukocytosis (what and cause)
high WBC count (bacterial infection)
141
active artificial immunity
vaccines like chicken pox, DPT, MMR (inject epitopes at no risk, not true of weak/dead virus)
142
aminopeptidase
brush border enzyme, along with carboxypeptidase cut individual amino acids off strings of carboxyl and amino acids
143
respiratory acidosis
lower than normal blood pH due to too much CO2 (anything that prevents blowing off CO2, shifts reaction to the left creating acidosis)
144
filtration
non-selective (anything is filtered), main thing happening between glomerulus and Bowman's capsule
145
What hormone releases bile?
Cholecystokinin
146
respiratory alkalosis
higher than normal pH (caused by hyperventilation)
147
Where are the pneumotaxic and apneustic centers?
the pons
148
stroke volume (what, normal volume, calculate)
avg. 70mL, amount pumped out by the left ventricle with each contraction, end diastolic volume minus end systolic volume
149
What vessels surround the ascending limb, descending limb, and loop of Henle?
vas erecta
150
corpus luteum
repaired corpus hemorrhagicum, makes estrogen & progesterone (support for first 14 days) (post ovulatory phase)
151
acrosome
cap of sperm, enzymes (all sperm release enzymes at once)
152
Where is testosterone produced?
leydig cells
153
lysozyme
enzyme in saliva that destroys bacterial membranes
154
primary bronchi
2 branches leading to the lungs
155
bronchioles
smaller branches
156
brush border cells
line microvilli, make enzymes (enterokinase (which activates trypsinogen), aminopepsidase (for proteins), and carb enzymes (the amylases))
157
ectopic sites
small group of heart muscles can become over excited, raise heart rate to 210+ bpm (too fast for the heart to fill completely)
158
chylomicrons
golgi body of brush border cells package lipids for export in these structures (which go to lacteals)
159
What is prothrombinase the result of?
end product of intrinsic and extrinsic pathways
160
B cell nucleotide shuffling
creates different mRNA codons for each new infection
161
leukopenia (what and cause)
low WBC count (usually viral infection)
162
testicular torsion
Testes flip and turn. Cuts off blood supply (painful), 1 hour to save testes
163
inhibin in males
stops FSH (spermatogenesis) when the ampulla is full
164
epitopes
"foreign markers on the surface of microbes capable of eliciting an immune response"
165
HGC
chorion cells make HCG to keep corpus luteum going after 21 days, only make when you are pregnant, high levels equal twins or Downs
166
bulbourethral gland
"highly alkaline secretions are activated during arousal to clean acidic urine from the MALE urethra" B-boy
167
epididymis
duct, matures sperm
168
What does the yolk sac do?
outside placenta, forms blood cells, contains germ cells
169
corpus hemorrhagicum
damaged follicle left by ovulation (ovulatory phase)
