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I F Research Flashcards

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0
Q

what is a hypothesis?**

A

prediction of a relationship- expressed as more or less (ex: People with X will have lower rates of cancer than people without X)

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1
Q

1st 3 steps of research IN ORDER***

A

1) identify a RELEVANT/IMPORTANT TOPIC + LITERATURE REVIEW
2) WELL-CONSIDERED RESEARCH Q
3) HYPOTHESIS

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2
Q

what is a null hypothesis?***

A

NO relationship = “equal to” (ex: Men with high intakes of X have the same rates of cancer as men without X)

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3
Q

what is a research protocol?

A

methodology to solve the problem

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4
Q

parts of research report: abstract***

A

CONDENSATION OF FINAL REPORT- purpose of study, questions asked, scope and method, summary of conclusions

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5
Q

parts of research report: general introduction

A

objectives, definitions, background, limitations, order of presentation

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6
Q

parts of research report: literature review

A

summary of different POVs

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7
Q

parts of research report: methodology

A

statement of hypothesis, discussion of methods used

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8
Q

parts of research report: results***

A

SPECIFIC LAB, CLINICAL, OBJECTIVE OR SUBJECTIVE FINDINGS

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9
Q

parts of research report: discussion***

A

INTERPRETATION of results, COMPARISON with other studies; may be combined with results

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10
Q

parts of research report: conclusion

A

brief summary, may have recommendations

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11
Q

parts of research report: implications***

A

HOW INFO MAY BE APPLIED IN PRACTICE

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12
Q

descriptive research**

A

DESCRIBES a state of nature AT A POINT IN TIME; regards DETERMINANTS OF A CONDITION OR A DISEASE

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13
Q

descriptive relationship: can causal relationships be determined?***

A

NO- establishes associations among factors, but NO CAUSE & EFFECT (or causal relationships)

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14
Q

analytical research**

A

TESTS HYPOTHESES

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15
Q

analytical research: can causal relationships be determined?***

A

YES- allows for CAUSE & EFFECT relationships

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16
Q

examples of descriptive research**

A

1) qualitative
2) case report
3) surveys

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17
Q

examples of analytical research***

A

1) experimental
2) Quasi-experimental/time series
3) cohort
4) case control
5) cross-sectional

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18
Q

qualitative research purpose

A

(descriptive)

explore phenomenon of interest –> data collected through interviews, observations, questionnaires

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19
Q

what is a case report?

A

(descriptive) AKA case study or case series

report of observations on one subject or more than one subject

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20
Q

what are surveys?***

A

research designed to DESCRIBE and QUANTIFY characteristics of a DEFINED POPULATION; DEFINED TIME FRAME, PINPOINTS PROBLEMS (ex: NHANES)

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21
Q

what is the experimental model?***

A

(analytical)

uses EXPERIMENTAL & CONTROL GROUPS

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22
Q

what does the experimental group receive?

A

program or treatment

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23
Q

what does the control group receive?

A

NOT the treatment, may get a placebo

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24
placebo
gives the aura but not the substance of a service, removing the possibility of a Hawthorne effect (positive response due to attention participants receive)
25
in a study of aspartame, what could be the placebo?
sugar (??????)
26
when is an experimental model study successful?***
if EXPERIMENTAL GROUP >>> (improved more) than CONTROL group
27
what is a time series study (Quasi-experimental)?***
- series of measurements at periodic INTERVALS BEFORE THE PROGRAM BEGINS AND AFTER THE PROGRAM ENDS - shows if NOTEWORTHY CHANGE within ONE STUDY GROUP
28
cohort
group whose members have SOMETHING IN COMMON
29
cohort studies are AKA***
INCIDENCE STUDIES- tracking FREQUENCY OF NEW CASES (NEWLY DX) of a DISEASE
30
cohort studies are usually how long? prospective or retrospective?**
usually LONGITUDINAL, usually PROSPECTIVE (retrospective uses existing data and looks back for relationships)
31
incidence vs. prevalence***
incidence = new cases; prevalence = existing cases
32
case control studies
focus on SPECIFIC DISEASE: those with disease vs. those without disease
33
what is a cross-sectional study?***
ONE-TIME DATA COLLECTION (snapshot at one point, describes current not past or future)
34
cross-sectional study is AKA?***
PREVALENCE study- ALL cases of a specific disease among a group of people in a specific time (existing cases)
35
what is relevance or validity?
ability to measure phenomenon it intends to measure
36
internal validity***
tests whether the difference BETWEEN THE 2 GROUPS IS REAL (did the experimental group REALLY PERFORM DIFFERENTLY)
37
external validity***
can a GENERALIZATION be made to a larger population
38
analysis of variance is aka? when is it used?***
ANOVA- used when SEVERAL PRODUCTS (>2) COMPETE AGAINST ANOTHER (ANOVA...validity...>2)
39
analysis of variance is looking for?***
ONE OR MORE SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES ANYWHERE AMONG THE SAMPLES (ex: data set with BDS and characteristics)
40
what is reliability?**
consistency or reproducibility of test results
41
reliability: parallel forms
two separate but similar forms of the same test at the same time- do the sets of score coincide?
42
reliability: split halves
divide test in half- degree of similarity in results
43
reliability: precision
amount of variation that occurs randomly: less random variability is greater precision
44
sensitivity vs. specificity***
- sensitivity = test positive, have dx or condition at all | - specificity = people without dx or condition, non-afflicted
45
nominal (non-ordered) variables**
variables with NO SPECIAL ORDER (gender, race, marital status, present or absent)
46
rank order (ordinal scale) variables***
observations compared with each other and PUT IN ORDER (ex: best to worst, 1-4)
47
numerical discrete vs. numerical continuous variables
- discrete = data with numbers (# clinic visist) | - continuous = underlying continuous scales (blood pressure)
48
dependent variables are?***
OUTCOMES
49
what are independent variables?***
what you MANIPULATE in your study
50
treatments for diseases are independent or dependent variables?***
INDEPENDENT --> can change treatment to affect the disease
51
effect cholesterol levels have on heart attacks - independent variable? dependent variable?
- independent: cholesterol levels | - dependent: heart attacks = outcome
52
probability sampling
each segment of the population will be represented in the sample
53
randomization
select a sample from the whole population so that the characteristics of each of the units approximates characteristics of the entire population
54
non-probability sampling
no way of forecasting that each element in the population will be represented in the sample
55
convenience or accidental sampling
take units as they arrive on the scene- no attempt to control bias
56
measures of central tendency are?***
mean, median, mode
57
measures of central tendency- definition***
CENTER OF ANY MASS OF DATA
58
what is the mean?***
simple average
59
median?***
midpoint- arrange from low to high = middle value; if even number of numbers, median is the average of the two numbers closest to the center
60
mode?***
MOST FREQUENTLY occurring value/REPEATED number
61
if no number is repeated, what is the mode?**
THERE IS NO MODE
62
what is the range?
difference between the lowest and highest values in the distribution --> subtract lower from higher value
63
what is standard deviation?
degree of dispersion about the mean value of a distribution
64
the slope is?***
convex = bulging outward
65
what happens to the curve at the point of inflection?***
becomes concave (bulging inward) as the slope begins to level off
66
the distance between the mean and the point of inflection on either side is?***
EQUAL TO THE SD
67
how much within a normal distribution lies within 1 SD of the mean?***
2/3 or 68% = mean + 1 SD
68
what are correlations?
relationships between varying types of data
69
what does it mean the closer the points are to the line?**
STRONGER THE DEGREE OF LINEAR RELATIONSHIP
70
what is the linear correlation coefficient?
R = degree to which the points in a scatter diagram cluster around a straight line
71
what is the value of r?***
ALWAYS between -1 and 1: GREATER THAN 1 IS NOT AN OPTION
72
R=1 means?***
all points lie on a straight line with a POSITIVE slope
73
R = -1 means?***
all points lie on a straight line with a NEGATIVE slope
74
the closer the r is to 1 or -1, what does this mean?***
closer the points tend to cluster around the line, stronger the degree of linear relationship
75
r=0 means?
no linear relationship
76
perfect positive correlation***
+1.0 = when one goes up, so does the other
77
perfect negative correlation***
-1.0 = inverse relationship, opposite
78
the lower the p value, what does this mean?***
lower the p value, higher the significance of your results
79
p <= 0.05***
SIGNIFICANT difference, results are reliable!
80
p <0.01***
VERY significant difference, more reliable results
81
p >0.05***
NOT VERY significant difference, NOT RELIABLE results
82
the smaller the p value, the higher your confidence is that the effect you observed was real -->
-->
83
line graphs show ___ on vertical scale and ___ on horizontal scale
- vertical = frequency/# | - horizontal = method of classification
84
what is a histogram?***
block diagram whose blocks are proportional in area to the frequency in each class or group
85
what does a histogram summarize?****
SUMMARIZES DATA from a process that has been collected OVER TIME
86
double blind study***
REMOVES BIAS from research; NEITHER researcher nor subject KNOWS which group is RECEIVING TREATMENT and WHICH IS PLACEBO
87
mortality vs. morbidity***
- mortality = rate of death | - morbidity = state of disease
88
variable of interest
what researchers are studying
89
population of interest
describes group about which the observations are made
90
descriptive statistics
summarizes and describes aspects of a set of data
91
inferential statistics***
techniques that allow conclusions to EXTEND BEYOND AN IMMEDIATE DATA SET; what is the PROBABILITY** that the results can BE APPLIED TO A LARGER GROUPS, what can you INFER from the results of your study
92
nonparametric test
does not depend on a normal distribution
93
dichotomous scores
only TWO events are possible (heads, tails)
94
continuous scores
measured on a continuous scale
95
pilot study***
SCALED DOWN version of the larger investigation; PRACTICE IMPLEMENTATION, determine if FEASIBLE
96
pilot study- # steps***
INCLUDES ALL STEPS IN THE STUDY, but done on a SMALL TEST GROUP (ex: a pilot on TV) "will the study plan work?"
97
focus group***
method of ATTAINING INFORMATION ABOUT A TARGET GROUP; SMALL GROUP who talk about the BELIEFS, OPINIONS, PROBLEMS
98
what type of data does a focus group provide?***
ATTITUDINAL or SUBJECTIVE data
99
chi square X test
tests whether or not there is a real difference between categories- compares FREQUENCY with what we expect to occur vs. frequency that actually occurred
100
types of things chi square test is used for
attributes with >2 categories
101
t test
tests significance between the MEANS of two different populations- NULL VS. ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
102
what are management concepts?
philosophies about how an organization views its customers and the delivery of products or services
103
service marketing
qualities of intangibility, perishability, heterogenicity, insperability
104
qualities of intangible & inseparable, perishable (in relation to marketing)
services are intangible --> produced and consumed at the same time so are inseparable and perishable
105
quality of heterogenicity of service
variation and lack of uniformity in performance of people - don't know how employees may respond to a situation or customers to the services
106
effectiveness vs. efficiency**
- effectiveness = achieving objectives, producing + results | - efficiency = minimization of resources, producing positive results **at the lowest cost

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