lecture 6 - learning to read Flashcards

Question

subtypes of developmental dyslexia castles and coltheart 1993

Answer 1

surface dyslexia - When individuals particularly struggle with the lexical identification task. They would struggle reading the word pint phonological dyslexia - When people struggle with the grapheme-phomeme conversion

Answer 2

* Exist on a continuum * Surface dyslexia: similar reading to reading- age matched controls → developmental delay (because lexical identification develops later) * Phonological dyslexia: different even compared to reading-age matched controls – phonological short-term memory deficit – speech perception difficulties

Answer 3

* Phonological skill training * Training eye-fixations * Increasing letter spacing * Multisensory method – Reinforcing memory associations between words/letters and how they sound using different sensory modalities (spatial locations, touch, movements)

Answer 4

* Reading is a complex process – Grapheme-phoneme conversion route – Lexical identification route * Dyslexia is a developmental reading condition * The causes of dyslexia are not entirely understood, but it is likely to involve impaired phonological awareness as well as visual and attentional difficulties

Answer 5

Reading aloud and reading to oneself are clearly different, but related, tasks. When we read aloud (or name words), we must retrieve the sounds of words. When we read to ourselves, we read to obtain the meaning, but most of us, most of the time, experience the sounds of the words as “inner speech.” Is it possible to go to the meaning of a word when reading without also accessing its sounds?

Answer 6

key unit is the grapheme—a letter or combination of letters that represents a phoneme (a basic sound unit). For example, in the word ghost, there are five letters but only four graphemes: "gh," "o," "s," and "t". Unlike spoken language, which universally distinguishes between consonants and vowels, written languages vary greatly in structure. The most familiar form to English speakers is the alphabetic script, where graphemes correspond (more or less) to phonemes. This correspondence is highly regular in transparent languages (e.g., Italian, Serbo-Croat) but inconsistent in English, where both one-to-many and many-to-one mappings exist between phonemes and graphemes (e.g., to, too, two; fate, pat, father). Other writing systems include: Consonantal scripts (e.g., Hebrew, Arabic), where vowels are often omitted. Syllabic scripts (e.g., Cherokee, Japanese kana), where each written unit represents a syllable. Ideographic or logographic scripts (e.g., Chinese, Japanese kanji), where symbols represent morphemes, not sounds. These structural differences in writing systems mean that reading processes vary across languages. While some generalizations from English may apply elsewhere, they cannot be assumed to be universal. Reading and writing are relatively recent human inventions. Writing systems independently emerged in regions like Sumer, Mesoamerica, Egypt, and China, with the first being Sumerian cuneiform around 3000 BC. The alphabetic script arose later, around 1000 BC in ancient Greece. The complexity of English spelling largely developed between the 15th and 18th centuries due to the printing press and spelling reformers who tried to reflect Latin and Greek roots in English orthography. As a result, reading English is cognitively demanding, and a wide range of reading abilities and disorders exist, especially following brain damage.

Answer 7

Understanding How We Read Words We can build a model of reading based on introspection—for example, how we easily pronounce regular words like beef, hint, or rave. These words follow regular grapheme-to-phoneme (GPC) rules, meaning their spelling-to-sound correspondence is predictable. Even if you've never seen the word beef, you could pronounce it correctly. However, many English words are irregular—they don’t follow standard pronunciation rules. Examples include: steak (irregular "ea" pronunciation) have (an exception to the gave, save pattern) vase (in British English, doesn’t match case, base) Some words, like island, aisle, ghost, and yacht, are extremely irregular and have no close phonetic neighbors. These are sometimes called lexical hermits. Reading New or Made-Up Words We can also pronounce nonwords like smeak, nate, or fot—they are pseudowords. Though we’ve never seen them before, they follow typical English phonological patterns, so we agree on their pronunciation. This shows we can assemble a word’s pronunciation based on spelling rules. This ability leads to the idea of a dual-route model of reading: The Dual-Route Model of Reading There are two routes to convert written words into sounds: Lexical (Direct) Route Used for familiar and irregular words Connects print directly to stored word forms (the lexicon) to retrieve pronunciation and meaning Fast and efficient for skilled readers Non-Lexical (GPC) Route Used for nonwords or unfamiliar words Converts graphemes to phonemes using phonological rules Useful for children learning to read and for reading aloud unfamiliar items Reading involves a kind of race between these routes. For familiar words, the lexical route wins; for novel or strange words, the GPC route becomes more apparent. Ongoing Debate: Do We Need Two Routes? Some argue that we may not need a non-lexical route for everyday reading, since it's mainly used for novel or pseudowords. Yet neuropsychological evidence supports its importance. Alternative models (like connectionist models) try to explain reading with a single flexible system. From Print to Meaning Children often reach meaning via sound: they spell out a word, then understand it. In skilled adults, most researchers believe there's a direct route from print to meaning. However, the idea of phonological mediation—where even adults go through sound before meaning—still has some support. Conclusion The dual-route model offers a framework for understanding how we pronounce and read both regular and irregular words, as well as new ones. It suggests reading involves multiple pathways that develop over time and may operate in parallel depending on context and skill level

Answer 8

Phonological Mediation: Does Sound Help Us Access Meaning? 🔍 Key Question Do we need to access how a word sounds in order to understand what it means when reading? 1. Evidence That Sound Influences Meaning Access Several experiments suggest that phonology (sound) can affect how we access word meaning: Homophone Confusion (van Orden et al.): In category decision tasks (e.g., “Is pair a fruit?”), participants mistakenly say "yes" to homophones of correct answers (pair vs. pear), showing phonological interference. Lexical Decision Tasks: Homophones take longer to process, possibly because of confusion caused by feedback from phonology to orthography (Pexman et al., 2001, 2002). Eye-tracking Studies (Folk, 1999): Longer gaze durations on homophones like sole/soul suggest phonological ambiguity affects processing. 2. Theories of Phonological Involvement Weak Phonological View (dominant) Phonology plays a supporting role. Meaning is accessed directly from print most of the time. Strong Phonological View (phonological mediation) We must access phonology before meaning. In extreme form: we cannot access meaning without first computing the sound. 3. Evidence Against Obligatory Phonological Mediation Homophone Effects Depend on Frequency Jared & Seidenberg (1991): Only low-frequency homophones trigger prior phonological access. Poor readers rely more on phonology than skilled readers (Jared et al., 1999). Eye-Tracking (Daneman et al., 1995): Meaning appears to be accessed before phonological code. Fixation patterns suggest that phonology affects later stages (like regressions), not initial understanding. Semantic Categorization Task (Taft & van Graan, 1998): No difference in response times between regular and irregular words. Suggests phonology is not needed to access meaning. Neuropsychological Cases: Some dyslexics can’t pronounce nonwords but still understand words. Case PS (Hanley & McDonnell, 1997): Could understand written words without accessing their phonological forms. 4. Masked Phonological Priming: A Mixed Picture What is it? A nonword prime like klip precedes a real word clip. If this speeds up recognition, it implies early, unconscious phonological activation. Findings: Many studies show priming effects, suggesting automatic phonological processing (Lukatela & Turvey, 1994). But effects are small, inconsistent, and sensitive to conditions (Rastle & Brysbaert, 2006). 5. Conclusions & Explanations Phonological recoding is not always necessary to access meaning, but: It may happen in parallel with direct access. It can interfere when lexical access is delayed. Feedback loops (e.g., from inner speech or speech production systems) may cause phonological effects. In some tasks (like lexical decision), people may base judgments partially on phonology. ✅ Summary of Views View Description Supported by Weak Phonological View Phonology helps, but is not necessary Most reading models Strong Phonological View Must go through sound to get to meaning Some behavioral and priming studies, but contested Alternative Explanation Phonology kicks in when direct access is delayed Eye-tracking, neuropsychological data

Answer 9

How do we learn to read? Unlike speaking and listening, reading and writing are clearly not easy tasks to learn, as shown by the large number of people who find them difficult, and the amount of explicit tuition apparently necessary. The complexities of English spelling make the task facing the learner a difficult one. Here we will concentrate on the most fundamental aspect of reading development, that of how we learn to read words. Reading development is closely associated with skills such as spelling, and we will also examine this. Finally, disproportionate difficulty in learning to read and spell— developmental dyslexia and dysgraphia— are relatively common, and we will examine these in the context of a model of normal reading development. Developmental dyslexias can be categorized in a similar way to acquired dyslexia, which has been used as further justification for a dual-route model of reading.

Answer 10

Normal Reading Development 1. From Phonological Recoding to Direct Access Nearly all children begin reading through alphabetic decoding (grapheme–phoneme correspondences). Skilled readers later shift to a direct route to meaning, relying less on phonological rules. This shift marks the transition from learning to read via phonological recoding to using visual word recognition. 2. Developmental Models and Stages Reading development progresses through phases or stages, reflecting increasingly sophisticated strategies: Frith (1985): Logographic Stage: Recognize words by visual features (can’t read new words). Alphabetic Stage: Use grapheme–phoneme rules. Orthographic Stage: Recognize whole words; still use decoding for unfamiliar words. Ehri (1992, 1997): Prefers "phases" to avoid rigid stage implications: Pre-Alphabetic Phase: No sound knowledge; rely on visual cues (e.g., shapes). Partial Alphabetic Phase: Begin linking some letters to sounds (e.g., first and last). Full Alphabetic Phase: Accurate letter–sound connections; can decode unfamiliar words. Consolidated Alphabetic Phase: Use multi-letter units (e.g., syllables, rimes, morphemes); adult-like reading. 3. Rime and Orthographic Knowledge Rimes (e.g., ant in rant) help with decoding and recognizing patterns. Poor readers struggle to move beyond early stages due to weak phonological skills. Competent readers combine: Alphabetic knowledge (letter–sound rules) Specific word spellings 4. Spelling and Memory Load Spelling is harder for words with: Irregular grapheme–phoneme mappings High memory demands Many spelling alternatives for a sound 5. Role of Phonology and Semantics in Early Reading Early reading includes direct visual access, but this phase is short-lived. Phonetic cues help learning even before full decoding: Ehri & Wilce (1985): Children preferred phonetically related cues (e.g., jrf for giraffe) over visually distinctive but unrelated ones (e.g., wbc). Children form partial sound–letter associations early on. Semantic influences: Better word learning when meanings are clear or imageable (Laing & Hulme, 1999). Even early readers are influenced by both sound and meaning.

Answer 11

Phonological Awareness and Reading Development 1. Definition and Importance Phonological awareness refers to the ability to recognize and manipulate the sounds in spoken language and is crucial for learning to read. It is part of metacognitive knowledge, important for cognitive development (Karmiloff-Smith, 1986). 2. Types of Language Knowledge Gombert (1992) distinguishes: Epilinguistic knowledge: Unconscious, implicit understanding. Metalinguistic knowledge: Explicit, conscious, and reportable understanding. Tasks for phonological awareness reflect this distinction—some assess implicit, others explicit awareness. 3. Task Analysis and Key Skills Yopp (1988): Phonological awareness includes: Manipulating single sounds Holding sounds in memory during tasks Muter et al. (1998): Two key components: Segmentation skills Rhyming skills Byrne (1998): Phoneme constancy—recognizing common sounds—is particularly important. 4. Phonological Awareness and Literacy Strong link between literacy and phonological awareness: Illiterate adults struggle with phoneme manipulation (Morais et al.). Ex-illiterates perform much better after training. Chinese speakers literate only in a non-alphabetic system struggle with phoneme tasks; bilinguals in alphabetic and non-alphabetic systems perform well (Read et al., 1986). Literacy promotes phonological awareness; phonological awareness also supports literacy—a reciprocal relationship. 5. Developmental Sequence Awareness develops from large-to-small units (implicit) and small-to-large units (explicit): Implicit: Matching, rhyming tasks (e.g., Treiman & Zukowski, 1996) Explicit: Segmenting, isolating sounds—critical for decoding Children often grasp rhyme implicitly but struggle to explicitly identify shared sounds (e.g., “boat” and “goat”). 6. Age and Skill Progression Phonological awareness improves with age and supports reading gains. Older children become more aware of rimes and can use them for word analogies (e.g., goor → door). Segmentation and letter-name knowledge are strong predictors of reading; rhyming skills are weaker predictors (Muter et al., 1998; Goswami & Bryant, 1990). 7. Training and Intervention Training phonological awareness improves segmentation and reading, especially when linked to literacy (Bradley & Bryant, 1983; Hatcher et al., 1994). Meta-analysis (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2012): Strong link between phonological awareness and reading skill; deficits in the former predict reading difficulties. 8. Cross-Linguistic Differences Language differences affect phonological awareness development post-literacy: Pre-literate children show similar awareness across languages. Post-literacy: English-speaking children (irregular spelling system) focus more on rimes; German-speaking children (more consistent spelling) focus on phonemes (Goswami et al., 2005). 9. Cause or Correlation? Strong correlation between phonological awareness and reading ability. Controversy remains about causality: Many training studies also train other skills (e.g., letter names). Most studies use children who already read, possibly reinforcing existing skills. Longitudinal studies show associations, but causal evidence is limited (Castles & Coltheart, 2004; Hulme et al., 2005). ✅ Summary Phonological awareness is central to reading—especially manipulating phonemes and understanding letter–sound mappings. It develops over time and is shaped by both cognitive development and language-specific literacy experiences. Although it clearly supports reading, its causal role is debated—does it lead to literacy or result from it?

Answer 12

The Size of Early Reading Units 1. Developmental Debate Key question: Do children start reading with large units (like rimes) or small units (like phonemes)? Though Goswami (1986–1993) argued that children first use onset-rime analogies, most evidence shows they first learn grapheme–phoneme correspondences. 2. Reading by Analogy vs. Phonological Recoding Goswami's findings: Children used clue words (e.g., "beak") to better read analog words (e.g., "peak"), supporting rime-based analogy. Critiques: Studies show analogy reading requires prior phoneme decoding skills (Ehri & Robbins, 1992). Task structure (e.g., showing clue and target words together) may artificially enhance analogy use (Savage, 1997). 3. Skill Progression and Reading Strategy Less skilled readers prefer phoneme decoding; more skilled readers more often use analogy via rimes (Brown & Deavers, 1999). Strategy is task-dependent: Clue words increase analogy use in all groups. Reading develops via multiple strategies, adapting to task demands (Grainger et al., 2012). 4. Cross-Linguistic Differences English: Rime plays a larger role due to irregular spelling–sound mappings. German, Greek, Spanish: Regular mappings allow children to rely on grapheme–phoneme decoding. Psycholinguistic grain size theory (Ziegler & Goswami, 2005): Different languages promote different preferred reading unit sizes. 5. Supporting Evidence Rime neighborhood size affects ease of word pronunciation in English (e.g., "start" vs. "storm"); less so in German, where word length has more influence (Ziegler et al., 2001). Self-teaching hypothesis (Share, 1995): Once phoneme decoding is learned, children partly teach themselves to read. Bowey & Muller (2005): Exposure to nonwords in context improved children's later decoding of those nonwords—showing implicit learning of decoding rules. ✅ Summary Beginning readers rely on grapheme–phoneme decoding. Older readers increasingly use analogy (rime-based) strategies. Reading strategy varies by language, skill level, and task design. Grain size theory explains language-based variation in preferred reading units.

Answer 13

How Should Reading Be Taught? 1. When to Start Reading Instruction Starting age is not critical: Learning to read later (e.g., age 7) does not result in lasting disadvantages (Rayner & Pollatsek, 1989). Older starters often learn faster (Feitelson et al., 1982). Early instruction doesn’t offer long-term advantages. 2. Two Main Teaching Methods Whole Word / Look-and-Say: Children memorize visual word patterns—emphasizes lexical/direct access route. Phonic Method: Children learn letter–sound correspondences—emphasizes nonlexical/grapheme–phoneme conversion route. Phonic method is far more effective (Adams, 1990). 3. Evidence for Phonics Meta-analysis shows systematic phonics training strongly benefits reading (Ehri et al., 2001). Mastering the alphabetic principle (letters map to sounds) is key to learning to read (Bradley & Bryant; Share, 1995). Sight reading methods (no phonics) result in: Errors Reliance on taught words only Performance resembling dyslexia (Seymour & Elder, 1986) 4. Explicit Instruction is Essential Without guidance, children wrongly map letters to whole words (Ferreiro, 1985). Explicitly teaching the alphabetic principle accelerates learning. Phonological awareness training improves reading by focusing on phonemes (Byrne, 1998). 📌 "If we want children to know something, we would be advised to teach it explicitly." — Byrne (1998) 5. Types of Phonics Instruction Analytic Phonics (common in the UK): Taught after reading begins Emphasizes similar-sounding word sets (e.g., dog/dig) Synthetic Phonics: All sounds taught first, then blending taught More effective: Faster and more durable gains in reading/spelling (Johnston & Watson, 2004, 2005) Long-term benefits confirmed in 7-year study 6. Role of Print Exposure Print exposure strongly predicts: Vocabulary size General knowledge (Stanovich et al., 1995) Active involvement with print (e.g., letter games) is more beneficial than passive exposure (Levy et al., 2006). Lack of print exposure may lead to reading delays and surface dyslexia (Stanovich et al., 1997) ✅ Summary Start age doesn’t matter much—method matters most. Phonics, especially synthetic phonics, is the most effective approach. Explicit instruction and active engagement with print are crucial for reading success. Print exposure supports vocabulary, reading fluency, and long-term literacy.

Answer 14

- Developmental dyslexia is an impairment in developing reading abilities: whereas acquired dyslexia involves damage to reading systems that were known to be functionally normal before the brain trauma, developmental dyslexic children grow up such that the normal acquisition of reading is impaired. - In the popular press, the term is often used to refer to difficulties with writing and poor spelling; strictly speaking, these symptoms should be called developmental dysgraphia, although naturally developmental dyslexia and dysgraphia usually occur together. To qualify for developmental dyslexia, the child’s reading age must be below what would be expected from their age and IQ, and the child’s IQ, home background, and level of education must reach certain levels of attainment (Ellis, 1993). Estimates of the incidence of developmental dyslexia range from 10% to as high as 30% (Freberg, 2006). - There are several important issues in the study of developmental dyslexia. Although developmental dyslexia is a convenient label, there has been considerable debate as to whether it represents one end of a continuum of reading skills, or whether it is a distinct deficit with a single underlying cause (or causes if there is more than one type). Neither is there agreement that there are clear-cut subtypes of developmental dyslexia that correspond to the acquired dyslexias. - Identifying developmental dyslexic children is complex: By definition, they read less well than age-matched controls, but how much less well do you have to read to be a developmental dyslexic, rather than just a poor reader? A problem that arises when trying to infer the properties of the reading system from cases of developmental dyslexia is that the developing reading system may be very different from the adult system. For example, grapheme– phoneme conversion might play a larger role in children’s reading. Furthermore, the nature of the child’s reading system will depend on the way in which the child is being taught to read. The look-andsay method emphasizes the role of the direct access route, and the phonic method emphasizes grapheme– phoneme conversion.

Answer 15

The Biology of Developmental Dyslexia 1. Complex Cognitive Profile Dyslexia often occurs with other language issues (e.g., speaking, object naming) (Ellis, 1993). Not all dyslexic individuals show the same deficits: Some have impaired visual memory (surface dyslexia), but not all (Goulandris & Snowling, 1991). Others, like “Allan,” show intact visual memory (Hanley et al., 1992). Slightly higher left-handedness/ambidexterity in dyslexic individuals (Eglinton & Annett, 1994). 2. Brain Activity and Phonological Deficits Abnormal oscillatory brain activity may disrupt: Lateralization Phonological processing Memory (Kraus, 2012) 3. Visual Deficits & Magnocellular Pathway Some studies report visual deficits, particularly in the magnocellular pathway (Lovegrove et al., 1986). Magnocellular system issues affect: Contrast sensitivity Eye fixation/control → letters may appear to move (Stein, 2003) But: Not all dyslexic individuals have this deficit. Many non-dyslexic individuals do have it (Skoyles & Skottun, 2004) 🔍 Conclusion: Not a sole cause of dyslexia 4. Genetic and Structural Brain Factors Runs in families → strong genetic component (Fisher et al., 1999; Eckert et al., 2001) Key brain structures involved: Thalamus Frontal lobes Cerebellum Left planum temporale (central to Wernicke’s area) shows reduced asymmetry in dyslexics (Beaton, 1997) 5. Neurological Abnormalities Autopsy findings (Galaburda et al., 1985): Abnormal planum temporale symmetry Neuronal ectopias (misplaced neurons) Neuronal dysplasias (disorganized orientation) Linked to fetal brain migration errors Smaller neurons in left medial geniculate nucleus (auditory processing) (Galaburda et al., 1994) 6. Compensatory Brain Activity Increased occipital activity seen in imaging (Casey et al., 2001): Suggests compensatory visual strategies due to phonological weaknesses ✅ Summary Developmental dyslexia involves diverse biological and cognitive factors. No single cause explains all cases. Contributing factors include: Genetics Brain structure abnormalities (e.g., planum temporale) Visual and auditory processing deficits Supports the view that reading ability is shaped by multiple interacting biological systems, and may vary across languages and writing systems (Hadzibeganovic et al., 2010; Seidenberg, 2011).

Answer 16

Are there subtypes of developmental dyslexia? – Simplified Summary Researchers have debated whether there are different types of developmental dyslexia or just a wide range of differences. Frith (1985) suggested dyslexia comes from getting "stuck" in earlier stages of reading development. Bryant and Impey (1986) found that both dyslexic and non-dyslexic children made similar reading errors, suggesting reading styles vary naturally. Baron and Strawson (1976) proposed two types of readers: Phonological readers (good with sounds) Orthographic readers (good with word shapes). Dyslexics may lie at the extreme ends of these types. Some researchers found reading ability falls along a continuum, not into neat categories. Jorm (1979) suggested that a brain area might develop abnormally in dyslexia, similar to how it’s damaged in other types of acquired dyslexia. Some individuals, like RE and JM, showed signs of phonological dyslexia—difficulty reading new or nonwords, tied to problems with sound processing and memory. Other cases, like Melanie-Jane, read real words well but struggled with nonwords, showing phonological dyslexia without everyday reading issues. Castles and Coltheart (1993) studied 56 dyslexics and found they had different patterns: Some struggled with nonwords (phonological dyslexia). Others struggled with irregular real words (surface dyslexia). These two types likely reflect problems in different reading routes. However, some critics argued that if you compare dyslexic children to kids with the same reading age (rather than actual age), these differences disappear. This suggests some may just be slower readers, not fundamentally different. The current consensus is that dyslexic difficulties fall on a spectrum, not into two distinct groups. Phonological dyslexia: trouble with nonwords and sound tasks. Surface dyslexia: trouble with irregular words, but okay with phonology. People with phonological dyslexia also struggle with phonological awareness (recognizing and working with sounds in words) and short-term memory. This phonological issue may be genetic, and often runs in families, but is also influenced by environmental factors. Even in languages with different writing systems (e.g., Chinese, Arabic), dyslexia often involves a phonological processing problem. This supports the phonological deficit model, which says the main issue in dyslexia is difficulty with sounds in language. However, not all dyslexia is phonological—some children struggle with understanding meaning (semantic issues) even though they read words or nonwords well. Some researchers suggest that visual attention problems might underlie both reading and phonological difficulties.

Answer 17

Can We Treat Developmental Dyslexia? Research shows that many people with developmental dyslexia struggle with phonological awareness—the ability to recognize and work with sounds in spoken language. Because of this, one effective way to improve reading skills is to focus on building phonological awareness, ideally starting at a young age. Sound Categorization Training In a study by Bradley and Bryant (1983), children who struggled with rhyming were trained to group words by sound (e.g., “hat” with “cat” or “hat” with “hen” depending on the task). After 2 years of weekly sessions and a 4-year follow-up, those who received this training showed significant improvements in reading and spelling compared to control groups. Importantly, the benefits were specific to reading—not other school subjects like math. Phonological Skills and Reading Instruction Further studies (e.g., Hatcher et al., 1994) found that combining phonological training with direct reading instruction is particularly effective for struggling readers. Word Segmentation and Analogy Techniques Some approaches teach children to break words into parts like onsets and rimes (e.g., “st” + “ain” in “stain”). Children can then use familiar rimes to read new words by analogy (e.g., using “rain” to help read “pain”). Multisensory Techniques The Orton–Gillingham–Stillman method emphasizes using multiple senses—children see, say, write, and even feel letters and sounds. This hands-on method can strengthen memory and improve spelling. One study (Hulme, 1981) found that children remembered letter sequences better when they traced them. Targeted Remedial Therapy According to Broom and Doctor (1995), it is possible to tailor treatments based on the specific type of dyslexia: A boy with surface dyslexia improved by focusing on low-frequency irregular words. Another child with phonological dyslexia improved with phonological training. Visual-Based Interventions Some children have visual processing problems that affect reading: Training eye movements can help if visual tracking is poor (Stein, 2003). Yellow filters might reduce visual stress, though evidence is mostly anecdotal. Increasing letter spacing can also make reading easier (Zorzi et al., 2012). What Makes an Intervention Successful? Effective reading interventions share two key features: They target the specific weakness—phonological skills for phonological dyslexia or orthographic knowledge for surface dyslexia. They use memory-boosting techniques, such as those used in mnemonics, to help children remember spelling patterns