lecture 17 - encoding and retrieval Flashcards

Question

meaning arrives in the spotlight - levels of processing

Answer 1

Levels of Processing and the Role of Meaning in Memory 1. Craik & Lockhart (1972): Levels of Processing Hypothesis Proposed that the depth of processing determines how well material is remembered. Processing ranges from: Shallow (e.g., visual features: case of letters) Intermediate (e.g., phonological: rhyming) Deep (e.g., semantic: meaning and context) 2. Key Experimental Evidence: Craik & Tulving (1975) Participants made judgments about words (case, rhyme, or sentence-fit). Later, they were unexpectedly tested on word recognition. Result: Words processed semantically were recalled up to 5x better than those processed visually. "Yes" responses were remembered better—likely because the word was more integrated into the sentence context, boosting recall via richer encoding (e.g., imagining a horse in a field). 3. Time vs. Depth: Tested whether longer processing time (total time hypothesis) explained better memory. When shallow tasks were artificially slowed (e.g., vowel counting), memory did not improve. Conclusion: It's the depth/meaningfulness, not time, that drives memory improvement. 4. Additional Support: Hyde & Jenkins (1973): 22 encoding tasks confirmed that deeper processing consistently enhances episodic memory, for both recall and recognition, even when participants weren’t expecting a memory test. Many 1970s studies reinforced the robustness of this effect. 5. Overall Significance: One of the most reliable findings in memory research. General rule: Deeper, more meaningful processing = better memory. Highly relevant for learning strategies and study techniques. 6. Criticism: Despite its utility and support, the theory has faced theoretical and practical critiques, particularly concerning how "depth" is defined and measured.

Answer 2

Challenges to the Levels of Processing Hypothesis 1. Conceptual Problems: Depth is hard to measure: Craik & Tulving (1975) noted that longer processing time ≠ deeper processing (e.g., vowel counting takes longer but doesn’t enhance memory). Parallel processing: Critics argue that stimuli features may be processed simultaneously, not in the strict order (visual → phonological → semantic) proposed by LoP. Example: While judging rhyme (e.g., dog–log), participants may still process some meaning, complicating the notion of strict depth levels. Theoretical limitation: Despite its influence, the LoP hypothesis has not led to much further theory development, and is now seen more as a useful guideline than a full theory. 2. Empirical Challenges: Transfer-Appropriate Processing (TAP) Key idea: Memory performance is better when the type of processing during encoding matches the demands of the retrieval test. Example: Learning to ride a bike by memorizing a book about it fails—factual knowledge doesn’t transfer to physical skill. In memory terms: Studying meaning doesn't help if the test requires rhyming or visual cues. 3. Morris, Bransford & Franks (1977): Critical Experiment Compared semantic vs. phonological (rhyme) encoding. Tested memory using: Standard recognition test (semantic match): Semantic encoding > Rhyme encoding. Rhyme-based recognition test: Rhyme encoding > Semantic encoding. Conclusion: Best memory occurred when encoding and test type matched (TAP in action). However, semantic encoding still showed the highest maximum performance (80% vs. 40%), suggesting a general advantage of meaning-based processing. 4. Fisher & Craik (1977): Replication Confirmed that TAP explains some results, but also reinforced that semantic encoding is overall superior for episodic memory. Key Takeaways: LoP is useful, but incomplete—depth alone doesn't always predict memory success. Transfer-appropriate processing (TAP) explains cases where shallow processing performs better (if the test matches the encoding). Semantic processing still holds the strongest overall advantage, especially when recall is meaning-based. Good learning involves not only deep processing but also ensuring alignment between study methods and test formats.

Answer 3

Why Is Deeper Encoding Better? 1. Deeper = More Elaborate and Rich Encoding Craik & Tulving (1975): Semantic (meaning-based) encoding leads to more detailed and interconnected memory traces, making recall easier. Experiment: Participants judged if words fit into either simple or complex sentences. Example: Simple: "She dropped her pen." Complex: "The little old man hobbled across the courtyard and dropped his pen in the well." Result: Words in complex (elaborate) sentences were better remembered. Free recall effect was weaker, but still showed the benefit of elaboration. 2. Elaboration Enhances Retrieval Origin of idea: William James (1890) — Memory improves when we think over experiences and link them to existing knowledge. Elaborative rehearsal (vs. maintenance rehearsal): Maintenance: Repeating info at the same level (e.g., saying a phone number repeatedly). Elaborative: Making connections to prior knowledge, leading to better episodic memory. 3. Evidence Against Repetition Alone Helping Memory Glenberg, Smith & Green (1977): Participants read words multiple times while rehearsing numbers. Words repeated up to 9 times saw only a 1.5% recall improvement. Recognition improved slightly (0.65 → 0.74), but repetition without elaboration is weak for recall. Conclusion: Mere repetition isn’t enough — without deeper processing, memory doesn’t improve much. 4. Integration With Existing Knowledge Deep processing may be powerful because it connects new info to what's already known. Example: Meeting someone named Henry — comparing to a familiar "Henry" helps memory. This uses prior knowledge as a "conceptual coatrack" or "scaffold" for new information. This idea aligns with Bartlett’s schema theory, which emphasizes that memory works by integrating new experiences with existing mental frameworks. Key Takeaways: Meaningful (semantic) processing leads to richer, more interconnected memory traces. Elaborative rehearsal (linking new info to what you already know) is much more effective than rote repetition. Repetition without variation or depth has little effect on long-term recall. New information is remembered better when it is integrated into existing knowledge structures — this supports both schema theory and modern neuroscience evidence

Answer 4

Our focus up until now has been on how meaningful processing can improve the retention of individual stimuli, such as individual words. However, as Bartlett would have been the first to point out, in everyday memory we quite often have to remember many things at once. For example, to remember a story like the War of the Ghosts requires the recounting of sequences of events and pertinent facts in an organized way. Similarly, learning the material in this chapter is not merely a matter of remembering individual facts or findings, but how they all fit together as an organized topic. Even something as simple as remembering a photograph of even moderate complexity involves encoding many individual parts, and their relationships to comprehend the whole. Indeed, the very episodic memories of main interest in this chapter are usually dynamic sequences of events with many objects, people, and actions, each of which may benefit individually from meaningful processing; but to remember the whole episode requires a larger structure through which the event coheres.

Answer 5

Evidence for Spontaneous Organization in Memory 1. Bartlett’s Theory: Memory is active, not passive. People naturally seek meaning in new experiences and impose their own structure on information using schemas. Prediction: People will organize information spontaneously to help recall, even without being told to. 2. Tulving (1962) — Subjective Organization Participants studied random word lists (same words, but scrambled order each time). Despite random order, people started recalling words in consistent clusters. Over time, they built larger and more stable “chunks” — a phenomenon Tulving called subjective organization. This shows that people actively group and structure information as they learn. 3. Role of Semantic Relatedness Memory is improved when words are semantically or associatively related. Deese (1959): Gave participants a list of words all related to an unseen word “needle”: List: thread, pin, eye, sewing, sharp, point, prick, thimble, haystack, thorn, hurt, injection, syringe, cloth, knitting Result: People recalled many of the words easily — they’re linked by associative meaning, making recall easier. 4. Tulving & Pearlstone (1966) — Category-Based Chunking Tested recall of lists with 1, 2, or 4 items per semantic category. Example: Set 1 (easy): pink, green, blue, purple (colors), apple, cherry, lemon, plum (fruits), lion, zebra, cow, rabbit (animals) Set 2 (harder): random, unrelated words like cabbage, river, dentist, gun… Results: Lists with more items from the same category were recalled better. Participants chunked items by category — sometimes omitting entire categories, but recalling items later when category cues were provided. This shows the latent organization in memory that can be reactivated with the right cues. Key Takeaways: People naturally organize information into meaningful chunks, even when not instructed to. Semantic and categorical relatedness strongly boost recall. Tulving’s concept of subjective organization supports Bartlett’s view that memory is constructive and schema-driven. Category cues can recover forgotten information — implying it was stored but not easily accessible without the right structure

Answer 6

Organization as a Memorization Strategy 1. Natural Tendency to Organize People instinctively organize information to make it easier to remember. Organization helps manage large, complex bodies of information by highlighting underlying structure. Rather than processing each item in isolation, people seek connections and coherence. 2. Bower et al. (1969) — Hierarchical Organization Participants had to memorize 112 mineral names — a challenging task. Two groups: One received the list in a logical hierarchy (organized). The other saw the same words in a random order. Results: Organized group recalled 65% on the first trial, vs. 18% for random. By the second trial, the organized group was nearly perfect. Even after four trials, the random group only recalled about 66%. Conclusion: Organization tripled recall performance and led to faster, more complete learning. 3. Organization Improves Long-Term Retention Not just a short-term boost — organization enhances memory over time. Especially useful for learning dense academic material (e.g., medicine, anatomy). Encouraged strategies: concept maps, matrices, and chunking. 4. Broadbent et al. (1978) — Matrix Structure Structured materials using grids or tables (e.g., Table 6.1) improved recall. Supports that visual and spatial organization can also be powerful memory aids. 5. Tulving (1962) — Subjective Organization Even with random words, people create their own structure through chunking. Organization is inevitable, due to the brain’s natural search for meaning (Bartlett’s “effort after meaning”). 6. Effective Techniques for Organization Story-based links: Create a coherent narrative to connect unrelated words. Example story for: church, beggar, carpet, arm, hat, hand, teapot, dragon, cannon, apple. Pros: Strong memory connections. Cons: Time-consuming; risk of adding false elements (e.g., “money” added but wasn’t in the original list). Imagery-based mnemonics: Use visual images of words interacting. Doesn’t have to be realistic — e.g., a swan riding a motorbike. Effective, especially when speed or complexity limits verbal strategies. Rooted in ancient memory techniques; discussed more in Chapter 17. Key Takeaways Organization is a powerful, natural strategy that enhances both short- and long-term memory. Works best when information is logically structured or meaningfully grouped. Techniques like hierarchies, matrices, stories, and imagery can boost recall dramatically. Even when material seems unstructured, people create their own structure to aid memory.

Answer 7

The Benefits of Organization Need Not Be Intentional 1. Organization Helps Memory — Even Without Intent to Learn You don’t need to try to memorize something for organization to help. The key factor is whether you perceive or discover structure in the information. Simply trying to understand how things relate can enhance memory. 2. Mandler (1967) — Sorting Words Experiment Participants saw cards with unrelated words and had different tasks: Intentional learning (told to memorize). Sorting into meaningful categories (no mention of memory). Sorting + told there’d be a memory test. Arranging in columns (no semantic processing). Results: The category sorters, even those not told to memorize, recalled as much as those who were told to. The column group (no meaningful organization) recalled the least. 3. Implication: Processing > Intention Memory is improved not by intending to remember, but by how deeply you process the material. Hyde & Jenkins (1973) also found that what matters is the type of processing, not whether people know they’ll be tested. Deeper processing (e.g., thinking about meaning or connections) leads to better learning. 4. Practical Advice for Studying Focus on understanding and organizing information. Think about: What the material means. How it connects to what you already know. Why it matters or how it fits into a larger context. Simply noting key points or reading passively is far less effective. 5. Organization Supports Real-World Expertise These principles don’t just apply in lab studies — they are crucial in real-life learning and in the development of expertise (e.g., in medicine, law, or chess). Experts often differ from novices in how well-organized and interconnected their knowledge is. Key Takeaways Discovering structure in information can significantly boost memory, even without trying to memorize. Deep, meaningful processing (e.g., organizing, relating, understanding) is more effective than simple repetition or passive note-taking. When studying, aim to process deeply, not just remember deliberately

Answer 8

Attention to Cues 1. Attention Is Crucial for Retrieval to Work Retrieval fails if a cue is: Not noticed (e.g., not looked at). Not attended to enough, even if seen. Example: Searching for your passport — if you look at the box it's in but are distracted, the cue (box) might not trigger recall. Attention strengthens the activation of memory traces; low attention weakens retrieval. 2. Divided Attention Impairs Retrieval Fernandes & Moscovitch (2000, 2003): Participants recalled heard words while simultaneously making judgments about visual items. Recall dropped by 30–50% when the second task involved words (similar material). Disruption was less when judging numbers or pictures (less overlap with memory content). Key Point: Distraction is worst when the second task competes for similar cognitive resources (e.g., verbal-verbal). 3. Recognition vs Recall Recall tasks (e.g., free recall) suffer more under divided attention than recognition tasks. Because recognition provides more specific cues (e.g., “Have you seen this before?”). Still, even recognition can be impaired by distraction, just to a smaller degree. 4. Secondary Tasks & Their Effects Even unrelated tasks (e.g., simple motor actions) can hurt retrieval: Craik et al. (1996): Simple visuo-motor task reduced recall. Rohrer & Pashler (2003): More demanding tasks → greater impairment. 5. Encoding vs Retrieval: An Asymmetry Dividing attention at encoding (when learning) is more damaging than during retrieval. Retrieval can often proceed with less attention, unless: High accuracy is needed. The retrieval requires self-generation (e.g., recall). Cues are vague or incomplete. Recognition tasks (with clear cues) are more resilient to distraction than recall. 6. Relevance to Brain Function People with prefrontal cortex damage show similar retrieval problems: Likely linked to weakened attentional control. Highlights the role of executive attention in effective memory use. 7. Final Takeaway Attention isn't just vital when learning, but also when retrieving — especially for accurate and complete recall. If your attention is split, especially between similar types of tasks, your ability to recall drops significantly

Answer 9

1. Cues Must Be Related to the Memory Target Retrieval cues are only effective if they are meaningfully linked to the target memory. We often make the mistake of using irrelevant or misleading cues, leading to retrieval failure. Example: Trying to remember where you parked, using the cue “my car” — but you drove your neighbor’s car that day. Once the correct cue was used, memory surfaced instantly. 2. Familiar Cues Aren’t Always Useful You might rely on habitual cues (e.g., the place you usually put your keys), but they’re useless if the item was put somewhere unusual. Retrieval fails because the cue wasn’t linked to the memory during encoding. 3. A Powerful Example: Dry Cleaning In the morning: You put the ticket on the kitchen table and then in your backpack. Later: You see the dry cleaner shop but don’t remember to stop. Why? The dry cleaner shop wasn’t part of the encoding episode. The kitchen table, which was present when you formed the intention, was encoded with the memory and later successfully cued it. 4. Encoding Specificity Principle Core idea: Retrieval cues are most effective when present during encoding and linked with the memory trace. A cue that seems weak but was encoded with the memory can be more effective than a strong, unrelated cue. Tulving & Osler (1968): Participants studied word pairs like GLUE–CHAIR. Later recall was better when prompted with GLUE (even though it’s weakly related), than with a more obvious associate like TABLE (if it wasn’t encoded). Tulving & Thomson (1973): Showed this effect is strong and consistent: even semantically related cues are less useful if they weren’t encoded with the memory. 5. Cue Effectiveness Depends on Context Barclay et al. (1974) Study: One group read: “The man tuned the piano.” Another: “The man lifted the piano.” Cue = “Something heavy” Only works for the second group — shows that meaning during encoding shapes cue usefulness. 6. Final Takeaway Memory is context-sensitive. We remember what we experience, and we access that memory through fragments of the original experience. A cue's relevance is determined by whether it was part of the original encoding — not by how logical or obvious it seems at recall.

Answer 10

Cue-target Associative Strength 1. Weak Associations Lead to Retrieval Failure Even if a cue is relevant, weak associations between the cue and the target can cause retrieval failure. The strength of the link between a cue and target determines how effectively activation spreads, aiding memory retrieval. Example: Foreign vocabulary words: You may recognize a foreign word, but struggle to retrieve its meaning because the association between the foreign word and your native language equivalent is weak. Faces and names: You may recognize someone's face but not be able to retrieve their name due to weak associations. 2. Role of Attention During Encoding The strength of the cue-target association depends on the time and attention you invest during encoding. For example, if you hurriedly store an object like a passport in a box, the weak association between the box and the passport makes retrieval difficult when you later try to remember where it is. 3. Cognitive Control and Prefrontal Cortex Involvement When cue-target associative strength is low, people often use cognitive control to aid retrieval. Badre and Wagner (2007) found that when cues are weak, people engage controlled retrieval processes. This process is mediated by the left inferior prefrontal cortex (LIPC). Example Study: Participants were asked to choose between two words (e.g., halo or flame) based on their association with a cue word like candle. Halo is weakly associated with candle, while flame is strongly associated. More LIPC activation occurred when the correct choice (halo) was weakly associated with the cue. This shows that weak associations require more controlled processing. 4. Prefrontal Cortex and Memory Retrieval The prefrontal cortex helps to sustain attention to weak cues, thereby biasing neural activity in areas that represent the target memory. This enhances the pattern completion process, increasing the chances of successful retrieval. Implication for Prefrontal Cortex Damage: Prefrontal cortex damage leads to difficulties in controlled retrieval, which can explain memory problems in individuals with damage to this brain area. 5. Key Takeaways Weak associations make retrieval harder, even if the cue is relevant. The prefrontal cortex plays a crucial role in managing weak cues and enhancing retrieval chances through sustained attention and cognitive control processes.

Answer 11

Number of Cues 1. Retrieval Improvement with More Cues Adding more relevant cues often improves memory retrieval. For instance, during a "tip of the tongue" experience, getting an additional hint (e.g., the first letter of a word) can bring the target memory to mind, even if you initially failed to recall it. Example: The cardboard box alone didn’t help recall where I stored my passport, but seeing the passport inside the box triggered the memory instantly. 2. Importance of Combined Cues A combination of cues is often more effective than just one. Example: If someone else finds your passport, simply showing it to you wouldn’t necessarily trigger the memory of putting it in the box. It’s the combination of the box and the passport that activates the memory. 3. Mechanism of Cues The effectiveness of multiple cues lies in attention: if you focus on both cues, both become activated. This leads to a faster and more complete retrieval because activation spreads to the target memory from multiple sources. 4. Dual Cuing: Superadditive Effects Dual cuing can sometimes be more effective than simply adding the effectiveness of each cue individually. This is known as superadditive retrieval. Example Study (Rubin & Wallace, 1989): In a study, participants were asked to generate responses based on two types of cues: semantic (e.g., "name a mythical being") and rhyme (e.g., "name a word that rhymes with POST"). Single Cues: Semantic cue: "MYTHICAL BEING" → 14% chance of generating the target (e.g., UNICORN). Rhyme cue: "POST" → 19% chance of generating a rhyming word (e.g., HOST). Dual Cues: When both cues were combined ("mythical being that rhymes with POST"), the likelihood of generating the target (GHOST) jumped to 97%. This demonstrates how two cues work together to dramatically enhance memory retrieval, rather than just summing the effects of each cue on its own. 5. Implication for Encoding Elaborative encoding (associating information with many cues) is useful because it creates multiple possible retrieval paths. This increases the chances of successfully retrieving the information later. 6. Key Takeaways Adding more cues generally improves memory retrieval, especially if attention is given to each cue. The combination of cues can lead to superadditive effects, where the result is greater than the sum of the effects of individual cues. Elaboration during encoding (linking information to various cues) enhances retrieval chances.

Answer 12

1. Impact of Weak Encoding on Retrieval Even with good cues, if a memory is weakly encoded, it may be difficult to retrieve. Low activation of the target memory means the starting point for retrieval is weak, and a relevant cue might not be sufficient to trigger the memory. Example: Some words are used frequently (e.g., DOG) and are easier to recall, while others are less frequently used (e.g., KIOSK) and harder to remember. Higher frequency words are generally better recalled because they are more strongly represented in memory due to repeated exposure. 2. Influence of Encoding on Memory Strength Memory strength depends on how well the information is encoded. Words or images that are encoded with more elaborative processing or over a longer period tend to be better recalled. This highlights that effective encoding improves memory retention and retrieval success. 3. Role of the Hippocampus and Medial Temporal Lobes The hippocampus and other structures in the medial temporal lobes are critical for the effective encoding of memories. Research shows that stronger memories are linked to more active brain areas, particularly the hippocampus, during encoding. 4. Example Study (Wagner et al., 1998) In this study, participants were scanned using fMRI while encoding a list of words. Afterward, participants were tested on their ability to recognize the words. Words that were successfully recognized were likely encoded more effectively than those that were forgotten. Result: Greater activity near the hippocampus was observed for words that were remembered compared to those that were forgotten. This is known as the subsequent memory effect — areas of the brain that show increased activity during encoding are associated with better subsequent recall. These effects help researchers identify brain areas that contribute to the formation of strong, retrievable memories. 5. Neural Activity and Memory Formation Subsequent memory effects are observed in the medial temporal lobes and other brain areas, depending on the content being encoded. This allows the measurement of neural activity that strengthens memory traces, making them easier to retrieve later. 6. Key Takeaways The strength of a memory is determined by how effectively it is encoded, including the involvement of brain regions like the hippocampus. Weakly encoded memories are harder to retrieve, even with relevant cues. Stronger memories are linked to greater neural activation, particularly in the hippocampus during encoding. Subsequent memory effects provide insight into the neural processes that contribute to forming retrievable memories.

Answer 13

1. What Is a Retrieval Strategy? A retrieval strategy refers to the approach or method used to search memory. Different strategies can dramatically affect how much and what type of information is retrieved. Example: After studying a word list, you might recall items alphabetically or by retracing when or where you encountered them. 2. Organized Encoding Supports Effective Retrieval If information is organized at encoding, using that organization during retrieval improves recall. Choosing the order of recall (e.g., from beginning to end or reverse) is also a strategic decision. 3. Example: Remembering the Passport When trying to recall where a passport was placed, the author used multiple strategies: Recalling the last time the passport was used Mentally revisiting recent trips 4. Anderson & Pichert (1978) Study – Retrieval Perspective Participants read a story about boys skipping school and hiding in a house. Each participant was asked to read from the perspective of either a: Burglar Homebuyer On the first recall test, each group remembered different items, aligned with their perspective. When asked to recall again, but from the other perspective, participants recalled new, previously unmentioned items. Takeaway: Changing retrieval perspective can uncover more information. 5. Schemas & Perspectives Retrieval is often shaped by an unconscious perspective or schema, which guides recall toward certain details. Adopting multiple perspectives may enhance memory, but it can also: Reduce vividness and emotional intensity (e.g., switching from a first-person to third-person memory view) Distort memories over time 6. Brain Systems Involved Effective use of retrieval strategies relies on cognitive control processes supported by the prefrontal cortex. Developing and applying retrieval strategies is an advanced form of cue-specification. Prefrontal damage impairs strategic retrieval. Study example: Gershberg & Shimamura (1995) found that patients with prefrontal cortex damage: Were less likely to organize recall using strategies. Retrieved information less efficiently than healthy controls. Improved significantly when given a strategy to use. 7. Aging and Retrieval Strategy Older adults often show similar difficulties with retrieval strategy, even without brain damage. Likely due to age-related decline in frontal lobe volume. Suggests that frontal cortex health is key to flexible and strategic retrieval. 8. Key Takeaways Retrieval strategies matter: The approach taken to recall can alter what is remembered. Changing perspectives can reveal forgotten details, but might distort memory or reduce emotional vividness. The prefrontal cortex is crucial for creating and applying effective retrieval strategies. Both brain injury and aging can impair strategic recall—but guidance or external support can help

Answer 14

Retrieval Mode 1. What Is Retrieval Mode? Retrieval mode is the mental state or cognitive set that prepares the brain to treat stimuli as prompts for episodic memory. Even if a cue is present, retrieval might fail if you're not in the right mindset to use it effectively. Example: The author repeatedly looked in a box that contained a passport but failed to recall placing it there—possibly due to not being in a retrieval mindset. 2. Everyday Cues Often Go Unnoticed Our environments are filled with cues from past experiences (e.g., shoes, objects), but we don’t constantly recall memories linked to them. Tulving (1983) suggested that unless we adopt retrieval mode, these cues often fail to trigger memory. 3. Neural Basis of Retrieval Mode: Herron & Wilding (2006) Participants were cued to make either: Episodic judgments (e.g., Did you see this word earlier? Where was it on screen?) Semantic judgments (e.g., Can this object move on its own?) Brain activity was recorded during a 4-second prep period before the task. Findings: Episodic retrieval prep showed increased activity in the right frontal cortex—an area tied to attentional control. Success in memory judgments improved with repeated episodic trials, showing it takes time to "get into" retrieval mode. 4. Retrieval Orientation Within retrieval mode, people can adopt different retrieval orientations—mental settings for retrieving specific kinds of content: E.g., trying to recall locations vs. sounds Retrieval orientation affects what gets retrieved and how successfully. 5. Involuntary Retrieval Not all retrieval requires retrieval mode—some memories come back automatically. These are called involuntary memories. Example: A runner suddenly recalls an old event after experiencing a side stitch, triggered by the physical sensation and setting. Berntsen's research findings: Involuntary memories are: Frequent and normal Often positive, but in disorders like PTSD or depression, they can be intrusive and distressing Caused by distinctive cues, not deliberate searching Supported by the same memory system as voluntary memory Involuntary semantic content (facts, ideas) also occurs and is linked to mind wandering—where thoughts intrude without intent. 6. Clinical Relevance Unwanted involuntary memories can be problematic: E.g., flashbacks in PTSD These involuntary retrievals can trigger intentional forgetting, a concept covered later in Chapter 10 on motivated forgetting. 7. Key Takeaways Retrieval mode is a necessary mindset for effective episodic memory retrieval. It involves mental preparation and prefrontal brain activity, especially when aiming to retrieve specific types of information. Retrieval orientation fine-tunes this mode to target particular content (e.g., sounds, locations). However, many memories arise involuntarily, often triggered by distinct environmental or emotional cues. Understanding the balance between controlled retrieval and spontaneous memory is crucial, especially in clinical contexts like PTSD.

Answer 15

Context Cues 1. What Are Context Cues? Context cues are a specific and powerful type of retrieval cue that relate to the circumstances in which a memory was originally encoded. These include the environmental, emotional, physiological, and cognitive states present during the original experience. 2. General Knowledge vs. Episodic Memory Knowing a word like “pomegranate” in general is different from remembering: Seeing a pomegranate at the market, or Reading the word “POMEGRANATE” on a specific page. The latter are episodic memories, tied to a specific place and time—i.e., context. 3. Role of Spatio-Temporal Context When recalling events, we must often intentionally specify the context to access the correct memory. Example: If asked whether you took the trash out yesterday, and you recall doing it last week, you might mistakenly say yes. This error occurs if you fail to constrain your memory search to the right timeframe. Spatio-temporal context includes: Where and when the event occurred (e.g., "at the local market on Tuesday"). 4. Other Types of Context Context goes beyond just time and place: Mood context – your emotional state during encoding (e.g., happy, sad). Physiological context – your physical or drug-influenced state (e.g., tired, caffeinated, intoxicated). Cognitive context – the thoughts or ideas that were active around the time of encoding (e.g., what you were thinking about earlier that day). These forms of context can affect what you’re able to recall, sometimes without you realizing it. 5. Context in Retrieval Tasks Many memory experiments and retrieval tasks are designed around the manipulation or use of context cues. Understanding the role of context is essential in interpreting results in memory research, especially when studying context-dependent memory (discussed in a later section). 6. Key Takeaways Context cues help us access episodic memories by linking our current state or environment with the conditions during encoding. Retrieval is more successful when we match the context of encoding and retrieval. Failing to specify the correct context can lead to memory errors or false recall. Context includes more than just location and time; it also encompasses mood, physical state, and mental state.

Answer 16

Each day, life leaves its bootprints in our mental clay, and these imprints influence us in many ways. Sometimes, we are deliberate users of memory, trying to consciously recollect what happened in times past. Other times, we may not intend to be influenced by memory, but are, without being aware of it. Psychologists have devised numerous methods for testing retrieval that get at these circumstances. These tests reflect various circumstances in daily life, and differences in memory across test types have taught us important lessons about the structures and processes of memory.

Answer 17

Direct Memory Tests (Explicit Memory Tests) 1. What Are Direct Memory Tests? These tests ask people to intentionally recall specific past experiences. Also known as explicit memory tests, because they require conscious, deliberate retrieval. Success requires: A temporal context representation (knowing when something occurred), Being in the proper retrieval mode—a mental state for treating stimuli as memory cues. 2. Types of Direct Memory Tests A. Free Recall Requires retrieving information without specific cues and in any order. Example: Recalling a list of 25 studied words in any sequence. Real-life parallels: Listing who was at a party, Remembering groceries without a list, Describing your day. Cognitive demands: Relies heavily on context, Requires use of retrieval strategies and organization skills. Affected by brain function: People with frontal lobe damage (e.g., frontal patients) struggle with free recall. B. Cued Recall Provides helpful cues to focus memory search. Example (lab): Giving a related word or first letter of a word. Example (life): "Who drove you to the party?" or "Which store did you visit?" Cognitive characteristics: Uses context + specific cues, Easier than free recall, Less dependent on strategy, more guided. C. Recognition Requires a yes/no decision about whether a stimulus was previously encountered. Example (lab): Seeing a mix of studied and new words, and identifying which you recognize. Example (life): Identifying a suspect in a lineup. Cognitive load: Typically the easiest of direct tests, Can be done through different processes: Context-dependent recognition (strong contextual match), Or familiarity-based recognition (less context needed). More detailed distinctions in recognition are covered in a later section. 3. Key Takeaways Direct memory tests differ in difficulty, depending on the amount of cues provided: Free recall = most difficult; needs context + strategy. Cued recall = easier; context + specific cue. Recognition = easiest; just decide if something was seen before. Successful retrieval depends on: The type of test, The quality of encoding, Context availability, Retrieval mode and strategy use.

Answer 18

Indirect Memory Tests (Implicit Memory Tests) 1. What Are Indirect Memory Tests? Measure influence of past experiences without asking for conscious recollection. Also called implicit memory tests. People are unaware that memory is being tested. Performance reflects unconscious memory effects. Example Cases: George Harrison: Subconsciously copied a melody ("cryptomnesia"). Helen Keller: Wrote a story unknowingly similar to one read to her years before. 2. Key Characteristics of Indirect Tests Participants encode material without knowing it will be tested later. Later tasks don't ask for memory recall, but performance is influenced by prior exposure. Involve a “cover story” to mask memory testing. Memory influence is unconscious—no intention to recall needed. 3. Common Types of Indirect Tests Test Type What Participants Do Effect of Past Experience Lexical Decision Task Decide quickly if a string is a real word (e.g., “GLORK” vs “APPLE”) Faster for previously seen words Perceptual Identification Identify briefly flashed, masked words More accurate for previously seen words Word Fragment Completion Fill in blanks (e.g., P_M_ R T) More likely to complete with studied words (e.g., POMEGRANATE) Word Stem Completion Complete beginning letters (e.g., PO_) More likely to generate studied words Conceptual Fluency List items in a category (e.g., birds) More likely to name BUZZARD if recently studied 4. Perceptual vs Conceptual Priming Many indirect tests are perceptually driven (benefit depends on how the stimulus looked/sounded). Perceptual changes (e.g., hearing vs reading) can reduce performance. Others are conceptually driven—rely on semantic meaning, not just appearance. 5. Repetition Priming A key mechanism behind indirect test performance. Definition: Improved task performance due to recent exposure, without awareness. Example: Solving a pomegranate anagram is easier if you read about pomegranates earlier. 6. Neural Basis: How Indirect Memory Differs from Explicit Memory Feature Indirect Memory Direct (Explicit) Memory Brain Regions Primarily neocortex, esp. sensory areas Hippocampus & parahippocampus Neural Signature Repetition suppression (reduced activity after repetition) Greater activation tied to context retrieval Memory Trace Content Perceptual traces Rich, contextual episodic traces Use of Context as Cue No intentional context usage Context is central to retrieval 7. Summary of Differences from Direct Tests No conscious recall required. No explicit cueing of context. Unconscious influence (performance improves without awareness). Different brain mechanisms and memory traces involved.

Answer 19

When people retrieve the past, they use context to focus retrieval on the desired place and time. But can we be influenced by context unintentionally? Suppose that you experienced an event in one environment or mood, and later wish to retrieve that experience whilst in a different environment or mood. How will memory compare to a situation in which one is in the same location or mood at retrieval that was present at encoding? As it turns out, the match of the current context to the one we are retrieving matters, a phenomenon known as context-dependent memory. Several types of context-dependent memory exist, including environmental-, mood-, and state-dependent memory.

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Environmental Context-Dependent Memory 1. Everyday Example of Context-Dependent Memory You walk to the kitchen but forget why—only to remember upon returning to your office. Why? Returning to the original setting reinstated the spatial context, aiding memory retrieval. 2. Definition Context-dependent memory: Memory is improved when retrieval occurs in the same environment as encoding. Spatial, physical, and environmental cues present during encoding become part of the memory trace. 3. Classic Study: Divers Experiment (Godden & Baddeley, 1975) Setup: Divers studied words either underwater or on land. Then they recalled the words either in the same or different environment. Result: Words learned underwater were best recalled underwater. Words learned on land were best recalled on land. Conclusion: Memory is better when the learning and testing contexts match. 4. General Findings from Research (Smith & Vela, 2001) Attention matters: Context effects occur only if people attend to their physical surroundings at encoding. Delay increases effect: The longer the delay between learning and recall, the stronger the context effect. Mental reinstatement helps: Just imagining the original context can improve retrieval even if the environment is different. 5. Applications: Phobia Treatment & the Renewal Effect The Problem: Renewal Effect In exposure therapy (e.g., for phobias), fear may return in a new location outside the treatment setting. This is because the fear-reduction learning is tied to the therapy context. The Solution: Mental Context Reinstatement Study by Mystkowski et al. (2006): Spider-phobic patients were asked to mentally recreate the therapy setting. Result: Significantly reduced return of fear in new locations. Takeaway: Mental reinstatement of context can help apply therapy learning in real-world situations. 6. Key Concepts Table Concept Definition / Example Context-dependent memory Better memory when environment at encoding = environment at retrieval Mental reinstatement Imagining original environment improves memory even if physically elsewhere Renewal effect Return of a learned fear in a new context outside of where therapy took place Graded exposure therapy Gradual exposure to feared stimulus to reduce phobia 7. Practical Tips Want to remember something from another place? Mentally visualize that location. Use mental context reinstatement in: Studying for exams Therapy Recalling conversations or events

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Mood-Congruent vs. Mood-Dependent Memory 1. Mood-Congruent Memory Definition: It is easier to recall memories that match your current mood. Example: When sad, people recall sad memories more easily; when happy, they recall happy ones. Key Studies: Clark & Teasdale (1982): Patients with daily mood fluctuations recalled fewer happy memories during sad periods. Velten technique: Participants read mood-congruent (happy or sad) statements to induce moods (Velten, 1968). Teasdale & Fogarty (1979): Sad participants were slower to recall positive memories. Implications: Mood-congruent memory may contribute to depression: Depressed individuals recall more negative experiences, deepening the cycle of low mood. Used in cognitive therapy: Helping people access positive memories can combat negative thinking patterns. Warning: Avoid making important decisions when emotionally charged, as you may only recall mood-matching experiences (e.g., only negative events when angry). 2. Mood-Dependent Memory Definition: Memory recall is better when mood at retrieval matches mood at encoding, regardless of the emotional content of the memory. Unlike mood-congruent memory, this is a context-dependent effect, where mood functions as an internal context. Key Study: Eich, Macaulay, & Ryan (1994): Induced pleasant (P) or unpleasant (U) moods using music and thoughts. Asked participants to generate events to cues (e.g., SHIP, STREET). Found better recall two days later when mood matched at encoding and retrieval. More Examples: Stress vs. Relaxation: Lang et al. (2001); Robinson & Rollings (2010): Participants who watched stressful or neutral film clips recognized studied faces better when tested in the same mood. Summary: Mood-dependent memory shows that retrieval success improves when the internal state (mood) at encoding matches retrieval, even if the memory itself isn't emotionally toned. 3. Key Differences Table Type Definition Example Mood-Congruent Memory Recall is biased toward memories that match your current mood. Feeling sad → recall sad events. Mood-Dependent Memory Better recall if your mood at encoding and retrieval match, regardless of memory tone. Learned while anxious → recall better when anxious again. 4. Practical Implications In therapy: Recall bias in mood-congruent memory can be challenged to help manage depression. In studying/testing: If you study in a certain emotional state (e.g., calm or stressed), match that state when testing, if possible. Be mindful of emotional decisions — they may be influenced by biased recall. 5. Summary Tip 🧠 "Feelings filter memories." What you remember is shaped not just by what happened, but by how you feel now — and how you felt then

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State-Dependent Memory 1. Definition State-dependent memory: Memory is better recalled when a person is in the same internal (physiological or drug-induced) state during retrieval as they were during encoding. This is a form of context-dependent memory, but focuses on internal (rather than external) conditions. 2. Drug-Induced State Dependence Goodwin et al. (1969): Heavy drinkers who hide things (e.g., money or alcohol) while drunk can only recall the hiding spot when drunk again. What’s learned when intoxicated is recalled better when intoxicated. Other substances with state-dependent effects: Nitrous oxide (anesthetic) Marijuana (Eich, 1980) Caffeine Key finding (Eich, 1980): State-dependent effects are seen in recall tests, not recognition tests. Why? Recognition provides the cue, making the internal state less critical. 3. Natural Physiological State Dependence Miles & Hardman (1998): Tested aerobic exercise as a physiological state. Participants learned a word list either while resting or while exercising (on a bike with heart rate 120–150 bpm). Later, they recalled words either in the same or a different state. Result: Recall was 20% better when the state matched at encoding and retrieval. Similar findings: Schramke & Bauer (1997) 4. Practical Implications Your body state during learning matters. If you study while caffeinated, recall may be better when caffeinated. If you read notes while exercising, try reviewing or applying them in a similar active state. Athletes should consider learning strategies in game-like conditions for better memory on the field. Students: Avoid drastic changes in physical or internal states between studying and testing. 5. Key Concepts Table Concept Definition / Example State-dependent memory Memory recall improves when internal state (drug, mood, physiological) is the same Drug-induced states Recall improves if sober during test if learned sober; same for intoxicated states Exercise-induced state Better memory when learning and recalling in the same cardiovascular state Recall vs Recognition State dependency is found with recall, not recognition, which provides external cues 6. Summary Tip 🔁 Match your state at test to your state at study for better memory — especially when it comes to recall!

Answer 23

1. What Is Cognitive Context? Refers to the thoughts, ideas, concepts, or even language that occupy our minds during encoding (when a memory is formed). These internal, non-physical contexts can influence what we remember later. Example: If Picasso was immersed in thoughts of blue tones during his Blue Period, this likely shaped what he remembered and created. 2. Key Study: Language Context & Memory (Marian & Neisser, 2000) Participants: Russian-English bilinguals. Method: Participants were interviewed in English for one half of the session, and in Russian for the other. They were given word prompts (in the same language as the interview) and asked to recall personal memories. Results: During Russian interviews: 64% of memories were Russian-context memories. During English interviews: Only 35% of memories were Russian-context ones. Opposite pattern occurred for English memories. Conclusion: Language acts as a cognitive context. Bilinguals tend to recall memories in the same language context in which they were encoded. Suggests that people may operate in distinct cognitive modes (language-based), influencing what becomes retrievable. 3. Supporting Study: Marian & Fausey (2006) Findings: Bilinguals recalled academic information (e.g., chemistry, history) better when tested in the same language in which they learned it. Implication: Language influences not just personal memories, but also semantic knowledge (factual info). 4. Why This Matters Cognitive context (especially language) shapes memory access: Whole segments of your personal and academic life may be harder to access when you're operating in a different cognitive mode (e.g., different language). Practical Implication: Students studying in a second language face unique cognitive challenges: Retrieval of memories and knowledge may be language-dependent. These challenges go beyond just language fluency — they are contextual and cognitive. 5. Summary Table Key Concept Explanation Cognitive context The internal mental state (thoughts, language, focus) during encoding/retrieval Language-dependent memory People recall more memories in the language context in which they occurred Study example Marian & Neisser (2000): Bilinguals recalled more language-matching memories Implication for bilinguals Switching languages can make some memories harder to retrieve Academic impact Study and test in same language for better recall of information 6. Study Tip Summary 🧠 “What’s on your mind shapes what you’ll find.” Memory is not just physical or emotional—it’s also cognitive. Your language of thought can become a key to unlock or lock away parts of your memory.

lecture 17 - encoding and retrieval Flashcards

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