Memory✅ Flashcards
(123 cards)
1
Q
Which psychologists discovered the capacity of the STM?
A
Jacob’s (1887)
Miller (1956)
2
Q
A01 of Jacob’s capacity of stm
A
-to test the digit span of pp
-researcher will give pp a specific amount of numbers and ask them to recall in that order, aloud
-researcher adds 1 digit each time sequence is repeated correct
- carry’s on until pp cannot recall correctly
3
Q
What did Jacob find in his capacity of STM research?
A
The mean span of digits was 9.3 items
4
Q
What is the strengths of Jacob’s capacity in STM
A
Lab experiment therefore established cause and effect
Had high control over extraneous variables
Data is reliable
5
Q
Limitation of Jacob’s study on capacity of STM
A
Lacks validity- was conducted a long time ago which often meant it lacked adequate control
6
Q
What is capacity?
A
How much can be stored in the memory
7
Q
What is coding?
A
How the memory is stored?
8
Q
What is duration?
A
How long the memory can be stored for before disappearing
9
Q
How is STM coded?
A
Acoustically
Baddeley
10
Q
How is STM coded?
A
Acoustically
Baddeley
11
Q
How is LTM coded?
A
Semantically
Baddeley
12
Q
A01 of millers capacity of stm
A
- noticed everything came in 7s in everyday life e.g. 7 days of week, 7 deadly sins, 7 music notes
-suggests capacity of STM is around 7+-2
-Miller noted people could recall 5 words and 5 letters
-do this by chunking
13
Q
A03 of millers capacity of stm
A
-may have overestimated capacity of STM
-Cowan reviewed other research and conducted its 4 chunks
- lower end of millers estimate is more appropriate
14
Q
A03 of millers capacity of stm
A
-may have overestimated capacity of STM
-Cowan reviewed other research and conducted its 4 chunks
- lower end of millers estimate is more appropriate
15
Q
Who studied the duration of STM?
A
Peterson and Peterson
16
Q
What is the A01 of Peterson and Peterson on duration of stm
A
-tested 24 undergrad students who took part in 8 trials
-given a trigram to remember, then a 3 digit number to count backwards from, aloud
-that prevents mental rehearsal
-they then must recall the trigram
-each trial was a different retention interval- 18secs or 30secs
17
Q
Findings of P+P on duration of stm
A
STM has a very short duration, unless we repeat
18
Q
What is the duration of stm
A
18-30 secs
19
Q
What is the capacity of stm
A
7+-2 or 5-9
20
Q
A03 of p+p on the duration of stm
A
-meaningless stimuli- artificial task- trying to remember a trigram doesn’t reflect everyday life
-lacks external validity
-however we do remember meaningless things such as phone numbers
21
Q
What is spontaneous decay
A
Memory trace disappearing if not rehearsed
22
Q
What is the capacity of LTM?
A
Infinite
23
Q
What’s the duration of LTM?
A
Infinite
Bharick et al
24
Q
A01 of bahrick et al on duration of LTM
A
-392 pps from Ohio aged between 17-74
-high school year books obtained for each pp
-recall was tested in 2 ways: photo recognition and free recall
25
What were the findings of bahrick et al on duration of LTM
-pp’s tested within 15 years of grad were 90% accurate for photo recognition, 60% accurate for free recall
-pp’s tested within 48 yrs of grad were 70% accurate for photo rec and 30% for free recall
LTM can last for a long time
26
A03 of bahrick et al on duration of LTM
-Higher external validity- real life memory
- Shepard 1967- when studies of LTM have been conducted with meaningless pic, recall rates were lower
- however, confounding variables are not controlled e.g pp could have looked through and rehearsed their memory over the years
27
What is iconic coding?
Visual info is encoded visually
28
What is echoic coding?
Auditory info encoded acoustically
29
What are iconic and echoic coding a part of?
Sensory register
30
What is the sensory register
The first and most immediate form of a memory u have
31
What’s the capacity of sensory register
Very large e.g. 100 mil cells in each eye storing data
32
What is the duration of the sensory register
0.5 secs
33
What is Sperlings sensory register experiment??
-Pps saw a grid for 50 ms
-had to write all 12 items
-or have to recall a specific row after hearing the tone
34
What was sperlings findings for the sensory register experiment
Whole grid recalled- 42%
One row- 3 items, 75%
35
What was glanzer and Cuntiz’s (1966) experiment on the sensory register
-Pps can remember words better based on serial position effect
- pps given list of words. One group recalled straight away, the other after 30 secs
-counted back in 3’s to prevent rehearsal and recency effect
36
What are the findings of glanzer and cuntiz experiment on the serial position effect and sensory register
-Words at end of list- remembered if recalled immediately
-If given filler tasks- primary effect disappeared, recency effect remained
37
A03 of glanzer and cutniz experiment
Controlled variables as in a lab
No random allocation
Lacks ecological validity
38
Primary effect
First 5 words of a sequence tend to be remembered
39
Recency effect
Last 5 words of a sequence tend to be remembered
40
What are the 3 types of LTM by tulving
Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Procedural memory
41
What is episodic memory
Recalling events from our lives like a diary and personal events
Time stamped
Numerous elements- who what where etc
Consciously recalled
42
What is semantic memory
A long term memory store for knowledge of the world- eg what concepts mean
Not time stamped
Can always be added as u learn
Consciously recalled
43
What is procedural memory
Long term memory of our knowledge on how to do things and learned skills
Some are time stamped eg driving, some aren’t eg walking
Recalled unconsciously
44
Evaluation of Clive wearing: neuroimaging evidence
- brain scan studies- different types of memory are sorted in different parts
- tulving et al got pp’s to perform various memory tasks while brains are scanned by PET scans
-episodic (right), semantic(left)= prefrontal cortex
- supports different types of LTM, validity
45
What is the working memory model
Explanation of STM, active part of memory which computes information
46
Who created the working memory model
Baddeley and hitch
47
What is the central executive in WMM
-controls other components and makes decisions
- coding: modality free
- capacity: limited (4 chunks)
48
What is modality free coding?
Can manipulate all manners of info
49
What is the phonological loop in WMM
Deals with auditory information and preserves the order in which information arrives
50
What are the 2 sections of the phonological loop
Articulatory control system
Phonological store
51
What is the articulatory control system in WMM
Allows maintenance rehearsal for working memory - 2 seconds (baddeley)
52
What is the phonological store in WMM
Stores words you heard
Coding: acoustic
Capacity: limited (2 secs)
53
What is the visual spatial sketchpad in WMM
Stores visual and spatial info
Coding: visual
Capacity 3-4 chunks
54
What is the visual spatial sketchpad split into
Visual cashe
Inner scribe
55
What is the visual cashe in visuospatial sketchpad
Stores visual data
56
What’s the inner scribe in the visuospatial sketchpad
Arrangement of objects
57
What is the episodic buffer in the WMM
To compute info combining visual, spatial and verbal info
Coding: modality free
Capacity: 4 chunks
58
WMM- ao3: brain scanning studies
Braver et Al
Gave pps a task that involved the CE while having a brain scan
Found more activity in the prefrontal cortex
Activity increased as task difficulty did
As demands on CE increase WMM has to work harder to fulfill
59
WMM ao3: lack of clarity over the CE
Cognitive psychologists- CE is unsatisfactory and doesn’t explain anything
60
WMM ao3: word length effect supports phonological effect
Baddeley et al (1975)- demonstrated people find it more difficult to remember a list of 10 long words rather than short words
-finite space in articulatory process (2 secs)
- word length effect disappears if one is given articulatory suppression task- repeptive task
61
WMM ao3: clinical evidence
Shallice and warrington
-Patient KF
-had poor STM for verbal info, but processes visual info as usual
-suggests phonological loop is damaged but other areas are intact
-supports existence of separate visual and acoustic stores
62
WMM ao3: clinical evidence limitation
Evidence from brain damaged patients may not be reliable as it contains unique patients with traumatic experience
63
WMM ao3: dual task performance
Baddeley et al
-supports separate existence of VSS
-more difficulty doing 2 visual tasks, than 1 verbal and 1 visual
- increased difficulty= both tasks competing for same slave system
64
WMM ao3: criticism Lieberman
Liberman
Implies VSS means all spatial info is visual
Blind people have great spatial awareness and never had VSS
Argues should be seperated : visual and spatial info
65
MMM ao3: HM
Extreme epilepsy
Removed hippocampus
Essential part of memory making
Lost the ability to transfer STM memories into LTM memory
7 seconds
66
ao3: varga-khadem on different types of LTM
found 3 children with episodic amnesia
went to school, spoke and learnt facts
suggests semantic and episodic memory use different brain regions
67
68
Ao3 of Clive wearing on different types of LTM
Retrograde amnesia
No episodic
Semantic and procedural memory still works
Can only encode new procedural memories
Separate brain areas
69
Ao3: Tulving on different types of LTM
Fmri studies found which LTM memory type is associated with particular brain areas
70
Who created the multi store model of memory
Atkinson and shiffrin
71
How is sensory register data encoded into STM
(MMM)
Attention
72
Capacity and duration of sensory register
Spearing
Recall of of random row of 12 grid flashed for 1/20th- 75%
Recall of whole grid- 42%
Suggests all rows in SR (large cap)
Not all 12 be recalled (short duration)
73
Capacity of stm of MMM
wagenaar
Diary with 2.4k events
Tested himself on events using cues found 75% after 1yr
Same test after 5yr- 45%
74
Limitations of MSM
- cog tests for memory are highly artificial (low mundane realism)
-mainly in labs (low ecological validity)
-not generalisable
-diff types of LTM
-capacity of STM has altered (age + practice)
75
Benefit of WMM
More accurate on STM than MSM
76
Limitations of WMM
-memory tasks: lack external validity, mundane realism and not generalisable
-central executive doesn’t have full explanation
-inferences must be made- may be incorrect
77
What is the interference theory
Forget because LTM memories become confused by other info while coded
78
Proactive interference?
Old info disrupts new
79
Retroactive interference?
New info disrupts old
80
When is interference most likely to occur?
When 2 peices of info are similar due to response competition
When there’s a small gap between learning the info
81
Cue dependent forgetting?
Info in LTM but forgetting happens due to absence of cues/ prompts encoded at the same time
(Encoding specificity principle)
82
Context dependent cues?
Aspects of external environment
83
State dependent cues?
Aspects of internal environment (drugs,emotions)
84
Category/ organisational dependent cues
Providing cues that relate to the category of the memory in order to recall
Most effective cues have fewer things associated with them
85
Ao3: Schmidt on retroactive interference
Sent a questionnaire to 211 11-79y/o with a map surrounding old school with no road names on it
More times someone moved less street names remembered as more street names kept getting added to the memory
86
Ao3: Greenberg and underwood on proactive interference
Pps given a new list of 10 words to learn every 48 hours
Number of correct words recalled decreased the more words learnt
87
Limitations of interference
Only explains forgetting for similar sets of information learnt at the same time
Day to day??
88
Ao3: godden and baddeley on context dependent cues
Material learnt underwater or on land
Recall was best with divers in same learning environment
89
Ao3: Overton on state dependent cues
Material leant drunk and sober
Recall better when in the same state
90
Tulving and pealstone on Context dependent cues
Pps use free recall for 48 words or to match 12 4 word categories
Recall was better in categories- acted as cues
91
Benefit of cue dependent forgetting
Practical uses
Revision, cognitive interviews
92
Limitation of interference
Only explains temporary forgetting
93
What did Bartlett argue about memory?
It’s not accurate for recalling events in EWT
Causes reconstructive memory and schemas create errors
94
Leading questions
Imply particular answer using specific language in questions
95
Substitution bias
Actual change in memory
96
Response bias
Changed memory due to emotional pressure
97
Post event discussion
One witnesses recall can affect accuracy of others (memory conformity) for social approval
98
Anxiety in EWT
High anxiety means decreased recall rate
Weapon effect or tunnel vision
May increase recall rate
Alert and aware
99
Yerks-Dodson law of arousal
EWT accuracy increases as anxiety rises the witness becomes alert, however at a point anxiety becomes too high
100
Loftus and palmer on leading questions
Used different verbs to ask how fast the car was going at the time of the crash
Contacted- 31.8mph
Smashed- 40.8mph
101
Gabbert on post event discussion
Pls watch diff POVS of same crime
Once discussed 71% included info not included in the video
Concluded memory conformity
102
Bonder on post event discussions
Once warned about post event discussion witnesses changed EWT less
103
Limitations of post event discussion
Violence causes high anxiety
Low validity in lab as no emotional impact
104
Who thought of the enhanced cognitive interview
Fisher and geiselman
105
What are the extra features of the enhanced cognitive interview
No time limit
No distractions
Witness controls flow
Open ended questions
Slowly
106
How are cognitive interviews time consuming (limitation)
More time needed to establish rapport
KEBBEL+WAGSTAFF- Requires specialist training that many forces can’t provide for
Why proper CI isn’t used- police aren’t impressed
107
Cognitive interview- some elements are more valuable than others (benefit)
Milne and bull
All elements good
Found report everything and context reinstatement are the best combo
Confirmed police thoughts that some conditions are more useful than others
Increases credibility
108
More effective Supports of ECI (benefit)
Konkhen et al- meta analysis
Data from 50 studies
More correct info
Practical benefits- society
109
Variations of CI for vulnerable witnesses (benefit)
Police will adjust interview based on self
HOLLIDAY- developed the interview for children and disabled development level
110
CI creates an increase in inaccurate info (limitation)
KONKHEN ET AL
Recall of incorrect info increased by 61%
Recall of correct info increased by 81%
111
Johnson and Scott on Anxiety a03
Benefit
Johnson and Scott-
1) normal convo- man walks out with greasy hands and pen- 49% identified man
2) hostile- man walks out with bloody hands and knife- 33% identified man
112
Johnson and Scott on Anxiety a03
Johnson and Scott-
1) normal convo- man walks out with greasy hands and pen- 49% identified man
2) hostile- man walks out with bloody hands and knife- 33% identified man
113
Yuille and cutshall on anxiety ao3
Limitation
4 months after real deadly shooting
13 witnesses resisted misleading info, those with most stress have the most accurate EWT
High levels of stress= 88% accuracy
Low levels= 75% accuracy
114
Limitations and benefits of anxiety in forgetting
+ real life application- cognitive interview-reduces schemas
- lab based EWT- demand characteristics need to help researcher
- causing anxiety- ethical guidlines
115
what are the four elements of the cognitive interview
reinstate the context
report everything
reverse the order
change perspective
116
reinstate the context
witness returns to the scene in their mind to imagine the environment and how they were feeling that day, provides context and state cues
reduces anxiety
117
report everything
witness recalls everything even if it isn't relevant
an irrelevant detail may trigger important events
prevents schemas
reduces anxiety
118
change perspective
witness recalls events from someone else's pov at the crime scene
disrupts the use of schemas
119
reverse the order
witnesses recall events in a different order from what they happened
prevents schemas
makes dishonesty difficult
120
What did fisher initially define standard interview as
Observed police interviews in Florida
Police asked closed, quick, direct questions
Interrupted
No free speech
121
What was the 2nd experiment that loftus and palmer carried out on leading questions
Students who heard smashed were more likely to report broken glass than those who heard hit
Altered their memory
122
Evaluation of EWT
+real life applications
-tasks are artificial- eg gabbert with watching crime vids, no accuracy
-individual differences- older are less accurate than younger (antasi and Rhodes= 18-25 and 35-45 are more accurate than 55-78) However there is own age bias
-Demand characteristics- Zaragoza and mcloskey- answers in lab study for EWT are due to these, want to be helpful
-consequences of EWT- foster et al- inaccuracy could increase or decrease prison sentences
123
Evaluation of weapon focus effect
-Johnson and Scott weapon focus due to shock
Pickel did experiment using scissors, handgun, wallet and raw chicken, EW was poorer with unusual items so doenst support anxiety
-feild studies lack control- extraneous variables could effect accuracy for EW before study
-ethical issues- ptsd
