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Anatomy and Physiology > Module 4 - Renal / Nephron / Urinalysis > Flashcards

Module 4 - Renal / Nephron / Urinalysis Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the reference volume for total body water in a ‘standard man’?

A

70 kg (154 lb)

Total body water is about 60% of total body weight, equating to 42 kg (92.5 lb) or 42 liters (11 gal)

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2
Q

What percentage of body fluids is found in the intracellular compartment?

A

About 60%

This accounts for approximately 26 liters of body fluids.

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3
Q

What are the two main compartments where body fluids are found?

A
  • Intracellular compartment
  • Extracellular compartment
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4
Q

What is the primary difference in solute composition between plasma and interstitial fluid?

A

Plasma has a much higher protein content than interstitial fluid

Interstitial fluid contains virtually no proteins.

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5
Q

What ions are typically found in higher concentrations in extracellular fluid compared to cytosol?

A
  • Sodium
  • Chloride
  • Calcium
  • Bicarbonate
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6
Q

What are the two gradients that influence the direction of water movement between compartments?

A
  • Hydrostatic pressure gradient
  • Osmotic pressure gradient
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7
Q

What is hydrostatic pressure?

A

The force that fluid exerts on cells

It tends to push water from areas of higher pressure to lower pressure.

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8
Q

What does osmotic pressure depend on?

A

The number of solute particles present in a solution

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9
Q

What happens to a cell in hypotonic extracellular fluid?

A

The cell gains water and swells

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10
Q

What is the effect of hypertonic extracellular fluid on a cell?

A

The cell loses water and shrivels (crenates)

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11
Q

How does high hydrostatic pressure affect water movement at the arteriolar end of blood vessels?

A

It pushes water out of the vessel into surrounding interstitial fluid

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12
Q

What is the role of the lymphatic system in fluid balance?

A

It returns water lost in interstitial fluid back to plasma

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13
Q

What type of body fluids does the term ‘body fluids’ encompass?

A
  • Blood plasma
  • Interstitial fluid
  • Cytosol
  • Cerebrospinal fluid
  • Lymph
  • Exocrine secretions
  • Other specialized fluids
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14
Q

What is obligatory water loss?

A

About 500 ml of urine produced daily irrespective of fluid intake

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15
Q

What is the average daily water loss through insensible means?

A

Approximately 900 ml (600 ml from skin and 300 ml from expired air)

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16
Q

What are the three main sources of water gain in the body?

A
  • Metabolic water (250 ml)
  • Water from foods (750 ml)
  • Water from ingested liquids (1500 ml)
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17
Q

What triggers the thirst mechanism?

A

Changes in plasma osmolarity detected by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus

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18
Q

What hormone plays the most important role in balancing water intake with water loss?

A

ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

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19
Q

What is the effect of increased ADH on urine volume?

A

It decreases urine volume

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20
Q

What is dehydration characterized by?

A

Decreased volume and increased concentration of extracellular fluid (ECF)

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21
Q

What can cause overhydration (hypotonic hydration)?

A

Increased ECF volume that decreases osmotic pressure

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22
Q

What is edema?

A

A condition in which fluid accumulates in interstitial fluid causing swelling

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23
Q

What is the normal concentration range for sodium ions in the extracellular fluid?

A

135–145 mEq/l

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24
Q

What is hypernatremia?

A

Elevated sodium concentration greater than 145 mEq/l

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25
What is hyponatremia?
Decreased sodium concentration less than 135 mEq/l
26
What is the primary trigger for the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)?
Low extracellular sodium concentration
27
How does ANP affect sodium and water reabsorption?
It decreases both sodium and water reabsorption
28
What determines sodium ion imbalances?
Absolute ion number and number of water molecules
29
What is hyponatremia?
Decreased Na+ concentration; less than 135 mEq/l; commonly caused by overhydration ## Footnote Hyponatremia indicates an imbalance of sodium in the body.
30
How does the amount of water in the body affect sodium ion concentration?
It changes concentration of sodium ions in body fluids without impacting the absolute number of sodium ions ## Footnote The concentration of sodium ions is relative to the volume of water present.
31
What is the sodium ion concentration in solution A with 10 sodium ions and 90 water molecules?
10% sodium ion concentration ## Footnote This is a basic representation of how concentration is calculated.
32
What happens to sodium ion concentration in dehydration?
Blood resembles solution in beaker B; individual has hypernatremia without change in sodium ions ## Footnote Hypernatremia indicates an increase in sodium concentration relative to water.
33
What are the functions of water in the body?
* Polar solvent * Distributes body heat * Cushions organs and tissues * Lubricates organs and tissues ## Footnote Water is essential for various physiological processes.
34
What is the normal concentration of potassium ions (K+) intracellularly?
139 mEq/l ## Footnote This concentration is significantly higher than that found extracellularly.
35
What is hyperkalemia?
Plasma K+ greater than 4.5 mEq/l ## Footnote Hyperkalemia can lead to dangerous conditions affecting heart and muscle function.
36
What is hypokalemia?
Plasma K+ less than 3.9 mEq/l ## Footnote Hypokalemia often results from diuretics and can affect muscle responsiveness.
37
What are the mechanisms that regulate potassium ion concentration?
* Insulin * Aldosterone * Epinephrine ## Footnote These hormones play a key role in maintaining potassium levels in the body.
38
What is the normal range of calcium cation (Ca2+) concentration in plasma?
8.7–10.4 mg/dl ## Footnote This range is critical for various physiological functions.
39
What happens when extracellular calcium levels drop?
* Ca2+ is released from bone tissue * Reabsorbed from filtrate in kidneys * Absorbed more readily from ingested food ## Footnote These processes help maintain calcium homeostasis.
40
What hormone is released in response to decreased Ca2+ concentration?
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) ## Footnote PTH plays a crucial role in regulating calcium levels in the body.
41
What is hypercalcemia?
Plasma Ca2+ above 10.5 mg/dl ## Footnote Hypercalcemia is associated with serious health conditions.
42
What are the sources of acids and bases in the body?
* Carbon dioxide (CO2) * Lactic acid * Uric acid * Acidic ketone bodies ## Footnote These substances can affect body pH significantly.
43
What is the normal pH range for body fluids?
7.35–7.45 ## Footnote Maintaining this range is crucial to prevent cellular damage.
44
What is the role of the carbonic acid–bicarbonate ion buffer system?
Resists changes in pH by interacting with hydrogen ions ## Footnote This buffer system is essential for maintaining blood pH.
45
What is the main function of the respiratory system in acid-base balance?
Controls amount of volatile acids in extracellular fluid (ECF) ## Footnote It helps regulate pH by adjusting CO2 levels.
46
What is the function of the urinary system in maintaining blood pH?
Excretes fixed acids and controls bicarbonate ion concentrations ## Footnote This system complements respiratory regulation of pH.
47
What occurs during severe hypocalcemia?
Neurons fire spontaneously, leading to tetanic contractions ## Footnote Severe hypocalcemia can be life-threatening.
48
What defines a chemical buffer system?
Consists of weak acid and its conjugate weak base ## Footnote These systems help maintain stable pH in body fluids.
49
What is the definition of acidosis?
Acidosis is defined as body fluid pH of less than 7.35 ## Footnote Acidemia specifically refers to low blood pH.
50
What causes acidosis?
Acidosis develops when: * More H+ are added than buffer systems can bind * Number of buffer molecules such as HCO3– decreases
51
What are the compensatory mechanisms for acidosis?
Compensatory mechanisms include: * Respiratory compensation * Urinary compensation
52
What is the physiological effect of acidosis on neurons?
Acidosis causes neurons to become less excitable, leading to nervous system depression
53
What is the definition of alkalosis?
Alkalosis is when body fluid pH is greater than 7.45
54
What symptoms are associated with alkalosis?
Symptoms include: * Numbness * Tingling * Motor symptoms * Seizures * Coma * Death, if severe
55
What is the role of bicarbonate ion (HCO3–) in the body?
Bicarbonate ion is the most common base in the human body and a component of buffer systems
56
What is respiratory acidosis?
Respiratory acidosis is defined as a decrease in pH of body fluids due to excess CO2
57
What are the causes of respiratory acidosis?
Three general causes include: * Suppressed ventilation from brainstem dysfunction * Blockage of air passages in lungs * Decreased gas exchange in alveoli
58
What is the primary mechanism of renal compensation for respiratory acidosis?
Kidney tubule cells absorb all available HCO3– from filtrate, secrete H+, and synthesize new HCO3– from glutamine catabolism
59
What is metabolic acidosis?
Metabolic acidosis is defined as the addition of H+ to ECF or loss of HCO3–
60
What causes metabolic acidosis?
Causes include: * Addition of metabolic acids (e.g., ketones, lactic acid) * Failure of kidneys to secrete H+ * Loss of HCO3–
61
What is the first compensatory mechanism for metabolic acidosis?
Hyperventilation is the first compensatory mechanism to eliminate CO2
62
How does respiratory compensation work for metabolic acidosis?
Respiratory compensation works by decreasing total number of H+ in blood
63
What is the definition of metabolic alkalosis?
Metabolic alkalosis is caused by loss of H+ or excess of HCO3–
64
What are the causes of metabolic alkalosis?
Causes include: * Prolonged vomiting * Specific diuretics * Excess aldosterone levels * Overuse of bicarbonate salts
65
What is the role of arterial blood gases (ABGs) in assessing acid-base balance?
ABGs are used to measure pH, PCO2, and blood bicarbonate level to assess acid-base balance
66
What happens during respiratory alkalosis?
Respiratory alkalosis is caused by loss of CO2 through hyperventilation
67
What occurs during dehydration in terms of electrolyte balance?
Dehydration leads to: * Decreased blood volume and blood pressure * Increased extracellular electrolyte concentration, especially Na+ * Increased ECF osmolarity
68
What is the effect of angiotensin-II during dehydration?
Angiotensin-II causes: * Vasoconstriction * Increased Na+ and water reabsorption * Stimulates thirst * Increases blood pressure and blood volume
69
What is the pH scale used for?
The pH scale is used to measure hydrogen ion concentration of solutions
70
What is the definition of an acid?
An acid is a chemical that dissociates in water to release hydrogen ion (H+)
71
What is the definition of a base (alkali)?
A base (alkali) is a chemical that accepts hydrogen ion in solution
72
Fill in the blank: Solutions with pH less than 7 are _______.
acidic
73
Fill in the blank: Solutions with pH greater than 7 are _______.
basic
74
True or False: Bicarbonate and other bases resist dramatic swings in hydrogen ion concentration in body fluids.
True

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