Psychology: Behaviour modification in custody

Question 1

What is custodial sentencing?

Answer 1

Involves punishing an individual for their offending behaviour by ordering them to spend a fixed period of time in custody, most commonly prison. Other examples: therapeutic institutions or educational institutions

Question 2

What are the aims of custodial sentencing? (5P’s)

Answer 2

1. Punish - through retribution (revenge)
2. Protect the Public - through incapacitating
3. Prevent Recidivism - deterrent
4. Put off other offender
5. Promote rehabilitation

Question 3

Define retribution. How is this relevant to custodial sentencing?

Answer 3

Society getting revenge through the offender suffering for the harm they caused

• Level of suffering should be proportionate to severity of crime “an eye for an eye”
• People see prison as the option that enacts the most suffering - other options are soft
• CJS has a large focus on imprisonment to punish offenders –> the only government spending in recent years is for more prison places (National Offender management Service, 2018)

Question 4

How can we protect the public? Do we protect them in the same way for all offences?

Answer 4

• Incapacitate the offender - removed from society
• Need for incapacitation depends on severity of crime and type of offender

Question 5

Define recidivism

Answer 5

Re-offending. Rates in ex-prisoners tell us to what prison has been an effective deterrent

Question 6

What is the psychological term for putting people off offending? And explain how this is based on learning theory principles

Answer 6

• Both aims to act as a deterrent to the offender who committed the crime and the rest of society from engaging in offending behaviour
• Based on learning theory principles: either direct punishment to reduce likelihood of behaviour re-occurring or vicarious punishment

Question 7

What are the two levels of deterrent?

Answer 7

General deterrent = sends message to society that the crime will not tolerated (vicarious reinforcement)

Individual deterrence = prevent the individual from the repeating their offending (prison = punishment not committing crime = negative reinforcement)

Question 8

How bad is recidivism in England and Wales compared to the rest of Europe?

Answer 8

Recidivism rates in the UK are the 3rd worst in Europe (Yukhnenko, 2019) behind Denmark + Sweden

Question 9

What country has the lowest levels of recidivism in Europe? Why is this the case?

Answer 9

Norway has some of the lowest recidivism rates (less than 20%)

Question 10

Define rehabilitation and explain why it is so important when dealing with offending behaviour.

Answer 10

• Some people see the main aim of prison to rehabilitate offenders so they become reformed and repent for the suffering they caused
• Should leave prison ready to take their place in society

Question 11

What opportunities should be available in prisons that promote rehabilitation?

Answer 11

• Prisons should provide opportunities to develop skills, receive training, access treatment / therapy (e.g. drug addiction, conduct disorder, anger management) etc
• Rehabilitation only true way to prevent recidivism of offenders

Question 12

What are the three main psychological effects of custodial sentencing?

Answer 12

1. Stress and depression
2. Institutionalistion
3. Prisonisation

Question 13

Provide some statistics to support the idea that stress and depression are psychological effects of custodial sentencing

Answer 13

• 70,875 incidents of serious self harm incidents in last year (2023) within prison population (Office for National Statistics, 2024)
• 29% of deaths in 2023 were self-inflicted (ONS, 2024)
• High stress of prison experience increases risk of developing psychological disorders post-release
• It is estimated 90% of prisoners may meet criteria for at least one psychological disorder (NICE, 2017)

Question 14

Define institutionalisation and give an example

Answer 14

Adapted to norms + routines of prison life
- No longer able to function in normal everyday life

Question 15

Define prisonisation and give an example. What social influence research does this link to?

Answer 15

Prisoners are socialised into a certain role
- Adopt the ‘inmate code’ and perform behaviours acceptable + rewarded in prisons but not outside world e.g. trading system

Question 16

What did Bartol (1995) find about the prison population? How is this a limitation of the aims of custodial sentencing but also supportive evidence for the psychological effects of custodial sentencing?

Answer 16

Bartol (1995) found suicide rates 15x higher than general population

+ (positive): supportive evidence for psychological effects of custodial sentencing (adding validity to stress & depression

• (negative): suggests custodial sentencing not effective at rehabilitating individuals

Question 17

How are there individual differences involved in the aims and effects of custodial sentencing? How is this a limitation?

Answer 17

Not all offenders react to custodial sentencing the same way + not all prisons are run in the same way
- Some prisons more effective at rehabilitation programmes
- Some way react by becoming prisonised, others reject prison social roles
- People are on different length sentences, type of prisons + for different types of offence (confounding variables)
- Many already have pre-existing mental health problems

• (negative): make it very difficult to make general conclusions about aims + effects of custodial sentencing

Question 18

What is meant by the term universities of crime? What psychological explanation of offending behaviour does this link to and why is it a limitation of the aims of custodial sentencing?

Answer 18

Custody aims to do the 5 P’s but they may actually be universities of crime - people underego a questionable ‘education’ where they learn tricks of the trade, attitudes + may increase drug use –> could increase offending behaviour.

DAT –> criticise aims of custodial sentencing

Question 19

What did Davies + Raymond (2000) find in their review of custodial sentencing? Why is this a limitation of the aims of custodial sentencing?

Answer 19

Reviewed custodial sentencing + found ministers exaggerated benefits of prisons to appear though on crime. They found community service + Restorative Justice may be more effective at delivering the aims of custodial sentencing

Only use for Aims

Question 20

How are human rights relevant for the aims of custodial sentencing?

Answer 20

Spend up to 23 hours a day in a cell - is this going against people’s fundamental human rights? How can they be rehabilitated when in this position?

Aims + Effects –> leading to mental health problems. Can’t carry out some of the aims

Question 21

Define behaviour modification and explain how it deals with offending through the use of behaviourist principles.

Answer 21

Applies behaviourist operant conditioning principles to treating offending behaviour during a custodial sentence through systems of reward and punishment. Aims to replace undesirable behaviour with desirable behaviours through the use of reinforcement

Question 22

Describe the procedure of token economies. Include an explanation of what primary and secondary reinforcers are and give examples of primary reinforcers and desirable behaviours that may be targeted

Answer 22

• Selective use of operant conditioning principles to encourage desirable behaviours over undesirable behaviours
• Prisoners are told what the desirable behaviour (following orders, staying out of fights) are + that non-compliance will have consequences
• Prisoners are given a token each time they perform desirable behaviour or according to reinforcement schedules
• Token are able to be exchanged for a reward (primary reinforces)
• Tokens = secondary reinforces - not inherently rewarding but have value due to association with rewards

Question 23

What punishment would be implemented in the token economy system? How would this lead to negative reinforcement?

Answer 23

• Tokens + rewards are withheld when prisoners do not comply (punishment)

Question 24

What are the three steps to designing a token economy?

Answer 24

1. Operantionalise target behaviours
2. Scoring system
3. Train staff

Question 25

What is Operationalise target behaviours?

Answer 25

By breaking behaviour into component parts / units. Must be objective, measurable + agreed in advance with staff and inmates

Question 26

What is Scoring system?

Answer 26

Staff + inmates be aware of it and how many tokens each behaviour is worth. Need a behaviour hierarchy (hardest behaviour / desirable are worth more tokens).

Question 27

What is Train staff?

Answer 27

Could be several hours for numerous weeks - procedure needs to be standardised (to ensure that behaviour is actually being modified) + recorded (to avoid weaker people being picked on / stolen) e.g. giving rewards for token

Question 28

What is a behaviour hierarchy?

Answer 28

Hardest behaviour / desirable are worth more tokens

Question 29

What research support has token economies got? Why is this a strength?

Answer 29

Holt Hobbs implemented token economies in 3 HMYOIs + recorded a 4th (control). They found that there was significant increase in +ve behaviour in the token economies groups when compared to the control.

Question 30

What is important about the delivery of token economies? Why is this a limitation of this way of dealing with offending behaviour?

Answer 30

- Depends on consistent approach by all staff members - Bassett + Blanchard (1977) found all benefits of behaviour modification were lost if applied inconsistently by staff, suggesting that these schemes require full consistent staff participation if they are to be effective

Question 31

Give examples of why behaviour modification methods e.g. token economies are easy to implement. Why does this make it a strength of this way of dealing with offending behaviour?

Answer 31

- Easy to implement - It is a cost-effective strategy that does not require the presence of a professional and can be implemented by practically anyone to being easy to follow - Suggests it is a feasible way of dealing with offending behaviour

Question 32

What rehabilitative value does behaviour modification have? Why is this a limitation of this way of dealing with offending behaviour?

Answer 32

- How much does it rehabilitate? - Blackburn (1993) criticises behaviour modification for having 'little rehabilitative value' due to the changes in behaviour in prison that occur due to behaviour modification may quickly be lost upon release where they are not receiving tokens for desirable behaviour

Question 33

Define anger management (not eradicating) programmes

Answer 33

Is a form of CBT aimed at identifying anger triggers and learning techniques to deal with the situation in a positive way. Not aimed at preventing anger but learning to recognise and manage it --> Can be administered inside and out institutional setting

Question 34

Who is the key psychologist associated with anger management programmes?

Answer 34

Novaco (1975)

Question 35

Give an example of an anger management programme

Answer 35

CALM (controlling anger and learning to manage it)

Question 36

What is it that triggers aggression according to Novaco (1975)?

Answer 36

Cognitive factors e.g. hostile attribution bias --> heightened emotional (fight or flight mode) arousal --> aggression People with cognitive distortions are quicker to anger as they interpret more situations as anxiety inducing / threatening

Question 37

How is anger positively reinforced?

Answer 37

Anger is reinforcement by feeling in control (positive reinforcement) - cycle of aggression Anger management (CBT) programmes teach individuals to recognise factors that trigger anger + conflict resolution techniques

Question 38

What are the three stages of anger management (in order)? Hint: use the mnemonic to help you remember

Answer 38

- Cognitive Preparation - Skills acquisition - Application practice

Question 39

Explain cognitive preparation (getting ready for later stages)

Answer 39

Offender reflects on past experiences to find pattern (patient can collect evidence e.g. diary) of anger + identify triggers (Holistic Attention Bias). If the offender displays irrational thoughts the therapist challenges them to redefine the situation in order to break the automatic response

Question 40

Explain Skills acquisition. What are the three types of skills that offenders learn?

Answer 40

Learn a range of techniques to deal with provoking situations rationally + effectively PHYSIOLOGICAL (physical / body reaction) - deal with physical reaction to anger e.g. meditation / relaxation training (or breathing techniques to get out fight or flight) --> counter: act the physical response of F/F BEHAVIOURAL - assertiveness training to teach effective communication: if practised enough will become an automatic response --> replace aggression as a method of control --> positive reinforcement (feel in control) COGNITIVE: positive self-talk to encourage calmness (like she's not trying to hurt me) - to change irrational belief - more likely to repeat

Question 41

Explain application practice. How are they treated if they are successful?

Answer 41

Practice newly learnt skills in controlled environment through roleplay: re-enact triggering scenarios. Given +ve reinforcement (repeated good behaviour) by therapist if successful - Prevoct triggers

Question 42

Outline research into anger management programmes in youth prisons

Answer 42

Keen et al (2000) studied youth offenders (17-21 y/o) who took part in the National Anger Management Program - Offenders had 8 two-hour sessions, the first 7 over a three-week period and one session a month later - Found initially offenders did not take the course seriously + forgot important elements for programme e.g. dairy - Generally led to positive outcomes: offenders reported increased awareness of their anger management problems + increased capacity to exercise self-control

Question 43

What supporting evidence is there for anger management programmes? Why is this a strength of this way of dealing with offender behaviour?

Answer 43

Keen et al (2000) + supportive evidence --> increase validity of anger. - Management as an effective way of dealing with offending

Question 44

Why might anger management programmes be a better way of dealing with offending behaviour than behaviour modification?

Answer 44

- For example, anger management aims to tackle the underlying cognitive causes of offending such as hostile attribution bias, rather than just reducing the instances of undesirable behaviour. - This is important because it suggests that anger management programmes are more likely to lead to a more permanent change in offending behaviour, leading to more positive outcomes

Question 45

What evidence is there that anger management may not lower recidivism rates? Why is this a limitation?

Answer 45

- Blackburn (1993) found that whilst anger management did have a positive effect on the behaviour of offenders in the short term, it did not actually reduce their re-offending rates long-term - This is important because it counteracts the claim that suggests anger management may be the most effective long-term way of dealing with offending behaviour, as research has shown this not to be the case

Question 46

How is anger management expensive? Why is this a limitation?

Answer 46

- For example, in order to be implemented in custody, anger management: programmes require the service of highly trained specialists for a long period of time who are used to dealing with violent offenders. The program,es are also best when implemented 1:1 which creates further cost. - This is a limitation because the prison service is highly under-funded and is unlikely to be able to afford to invest in anger management programmes, particularly when the evidence for its utility is mixed

Question 47

Define restorative justice (RJ)

Answer 47

Is a different way of dealing with offending behaviour where the survivor + offender meet face to face to provide reparation from harm done. Often given alongside punsishment by the court.

Question 48

What does restitution mean? Reparation + restitution means the same thing

Answer 48

To make up for a loss, injury or damage that has been caused Active collaboration between the survivor + offender that aims to aid the recovery of the survivor and the rehabilitation process fro the offender

Question 49

How does RJ change the emphasis?

Answer 49

- Changes the emphasis from the state to the survivor and how they can be compensated in some way to help them overcome the crime. Move from retribution --> reparation - Empowers the survivor giving them a voice

Question 50

When in the sentencing journey would RJ be administered?

Answer 50

Can occur at any point tin the sentencing journey or alongside other mandates: pre-trail, alongside a custodial sentence, to reduce a prison sentence (insensitive), alongside community service (not just in prison), alternative to prison etc

Question 51

Who is the independent body for RJ?

Answer 51

The Restorative Justice Council (RJC)

Question 52

Outline 4 key elements of most RJ programmes

Answer 52

- Two parties meet face to face (or online) with trained mediator (ensure positive and safe environment for victim) supervising - Done outside of courtroom / custody --> neural environment (blank slate so don't conform to prison roles) - Offender hears impact of crime on the survivor from their perspective and sees the consequences of their actions e.g. emotional distress - The focus is on the offender taking responsibility (and moving forward) for their actions + rehabilitation rather than punishment (active involvement of all parties) --> focus on positive outcomes for survivors + offenders

Question 53

Outline another elements of most RJ programmes

Answer 53

- Other relevant members of the community present as social support for survivor (Rothon et al, 2011) - social increases +ve benefits of RJ - Could add in person who the offender looks up to - like parent or priest

Question 54

How do the survivors receive restitution through RJ?

Answer 54

- May give survivor monetary payment to reflect psychological damage or actual physical damage (financial restitution) - May go and fix the property themselves - Restitution through community service - Emotional restitution: offender supports healing process by helping to repair confidence / self-esteem

Question 55

What supporting evidence does it have for both the survivor and the offender? Why is this a strength?

Answer 55

- Shapland et al (2008) conducted 7 year research project + found 85% survivor (victim) reported experience + 60% felt it had helped them get closure and move on. 2% reported it made them feel worse.

Question 56

What supporting evidence does it have for reduced recidivism? Why is this a strength?

Answer 56

Strang et al (2013) meta- analysed 10 studied of RJ + custody vs custody alone and found the RJ was significantly less likely to re-offend especially violent crimes --> most likely to re-offend (most treatment resistant are helped) Effective at dealing with offending

Question 57

Why might RJ be unpopular with the public?

Answer 57

Government agreed to be 'tough on crime' which gained widespread popularity

Question 58

Why is RJ expensive to run, and how is this a limitation? S+C: can you countercriticise this point?

Answer 58

- ve = Requires presence of highly skilled trained mediator and high levels of attrition (drop out) Counter - cost justified by benefits: Shapland et al (2007) found every £1 spent on RJ saves CJS £8 through reduced recidivism rates (recidivism cost UK 18 billion year)

Question 59

How might RJ open up the survivor to further abuse?

Answer 59

Relies on offender's honourable intentions due to remorse. Van Gijseghaem (2003): could be using it to avoid prison, relive crime, to get status + may not even accept guilty verdict. Could cause survivor further harm e.g. DV cases

Question 60

How could it be a strength that RJ can be so flexible?

Answer 60

Adapted to individuals and wide ranging